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Brazil-The Colonial Period

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Portugal's exploitation of Brazil stemmed from the European commercial expansion of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (see The Colonial Era, 1500-1815, ch. 1). Blocked from the lucrative hinterland trade with the Far East, which was dominated by Italian cities, Portugal began in the early fifteenth century to search for other routes to the sources of goods valued in European markets. Portugal discovered the maritime passage to the East Indies around the southern tip of Africa and established a network of trade outposts throughout Africa and Asia. After the discovery of America, it competed with Spain in occupying the New World (see the Indigenous Population, ch. 1).

Initially, the Portuguese did not find mineral riches in their American colony, but they never lost the hope of someday finding such riches there. Meanwhile, in order to settle and defend the colony from European intruders, the Portuguese established a pioneer colonial enterprise: the production of sugar in the Northeast. Beginning in about 1531, cattle began arriving in Brazil, and a cattle industry developed rapidly in response to the needs of the sugar industry for transportation and food for workers. The discovery of precious metals in the colony's Center-South (Centro-Sul), a relatively undefined region encompassing the present-day Southeast (Sudeste) and South (Sul) regions, came only in the eighteenth century.

The Sugar Cycle, 1540-1640

By the mid-sixteenth century, Portugal had succeeded in establishing a sugar economy in parts of the colony's northeastern coast. Sugar production, the first large-scale colonial agricultural enterprise, was made possible by a series of favorable conditions. Portugal had the agricultural and manufacturing know-how from its Atlantic islands and manufactured its own equipment for extracting sugar from sugarcane. Furthermore, being involved in the African slave trade, it had access to the necessary manpower. Finally, Portugal relied on the commercial skills of the Dutch and financing from Holland to enable a rapid penetration of sugar in Europe's markets.

Until the early seventeenth century, the Portuguese and the Dutch held a virtual monopoly on sugar exports to Europe. However, between 1580 and 1640 Portugal was incorporated into Spain, a country at war with Holland. The Dutch occupied Brazil's sugar area in the Northeast from 1630 to 1654, establishing direct control of the world's sugar supply. When the Dutch were driven out in 1654, they had acquired the technical and organizational know-how for sugar production. Their involvement in the expansion of sugar in the Caribbean contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese monopoly.

The Caribbean sugar boom brought about a steady decline in world sugar prices. Unable to compete, Brazilian sugar exports, which had peaked by the mid-seventeenth century, declined sharply. Between the fourth quarter of the seventeenth century and the early eighteenth century, Portugal had difficulties in maintaining its American colony. The downfall of sugar revealed a fragile colonial economy, which had no commodity to replace sugar. Paradoxically, however, the period of stagnation induced the settlement of substantial portions of the colony's territory. With the decline of sugar, the cattle sector, which had evolved to supply the sugar economy with animals for transport, meat, and hides, assimilated part of the resources made idle, becoming a subsistence economy. Because of extensive cattle production methods, large areas in the colony's interior were settled.

Realizing that it could maintain Brazil only if precious minerals were discovered, Portugal increased its exploratory efforts in the late seventeenth century. As a result, early in the eighteenth century gold and other precious minerals were found. The largest concentration of this gold was in the Southeastern Highlands, mainly in what is now Minas Gerais State.

Data as of April 1997

Background		Following more than three centuries under Portuguese rule, Brazil peacefully gained its independence in 1822, maintaining a monarchical system of government until the abolition of slavery in 1888 and the subsequent proclamation of a republic by the military in 1889. Brazilian coffee exporters politically dominated the country until populist leader Getulio VARGAS rose to power in 1930. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil underwent more than half a century of populist and military government until 1985, when the military regime peacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of its interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is today South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. Highly unequal income distribution and crime remain pressing problems.
Location		Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
Area(sq km)		total: 8,514,877 sq km land: 8,459,417 sq km water: 55,460 sq km note: includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
Geographic coordinates		10 00 S, 55 00 W
Land boundaries(km)		total: 16,885 km border countries: Argentina 1,261 km, Bolivia 3,423 km, Colombia 1,644 km, French Guiana 730 km, Guyana 1,606 km, Paraguay 1,365 km, Peru 2,995 km, Suriname 593 km, Uruguay 1,068 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
Coastline(km)		7,491 km
Climate		mostly tropical, but temperate in south
Elevation extremes(m)		lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
Natural resources		bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber
Land use(%)		arable land: 6.93% permanent crops: 0.89% other: 92.18% (2005)
Irrigated land(sq km)		29,200 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources(cu km)		8,233 cu km (2000)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)		total: 59.3 cu km/yr (20%/18%/62%) per capita: 318 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards		recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
Environment - current issues		deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; there is a lucrative illegal wildlife trade; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities; wetland degradation; severe oil spills
Environment - international agreements		party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - note		largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
Population		198,739,269 note: Brazil conducted a census in August 2000, which reported a population of 169,872,855; that figure was about 3.8% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, and is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census (July 2009 est.)
Age structure(%)		0-14 years: 26.7% (male 27,092,880/female 26,062,244) 15-64 years: 66.8% (male 65,804,108/female 67,047,725) 65 years and over: 6.4% (male 5,374,230/female 7,358,082) (2009 est.)
Median age(years)		total: 28.6 years male: 27.8 years female: 29.3 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate(%)		1.199% (2009 est.)
Birth rate(births/1,000 population)		18.43 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population)		6.35 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population)		-0.09 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Urbanization(%)		urban population: 86% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 1.8% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio(male(s)/female)		at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births)		total: 22.58 deaths/1,000 live births male: 26.16 deaths/1,000 live births female: 18.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth(years)		total population: 71.99 years male: 68.43 years female: 75.73 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate(children born/woman)		2.21 children born/woman (2009 est.)
Nationality		noun: Brazilian(s) adjective: Brazilian
Ethnic groups(%)		white 53.7%, mulatto (mixed white and black) 38.5%, black 6.2%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 0.9%, unspecified 0.7% (2000 census)
Religions(%)		Roman Catholic (nominal) 73.6%, Protestant 15.4%, Spiritualist 1.3%, Bantu/voodoo 0.3%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.2%, none 7.4% (2000 census)
Languages(%)		Portuguese (official and most widely spoken language); note - less common languages include Spanish (border areas and schools), German, Italian, Japanese, English, and a large number of minor Amerindian languages
Country name		conventional long form: Federative Republic of Brazil conventional short form: Brazil local long form: Republica Federativa do Brasil local short form: Brasil
Government type		federal republic
Capital		name: Brasilia geographic coordinates: 15 47 S, 47 55 W time difference: UTC-3 (2 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins third Sunday in October; ends third Sunday in February note: Brazil is divided into four time zones, including one for the Fernando de Noronha Islands
Administrative divisions		26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
Constitution		5-Oct-88
Legal system		based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage		voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age; note - military conscripts do not vote
Executive branch		chief of state: President Luiz Inacio LULA da Silva (since 1 January 2003); Vice President Jose ALENCAR Gomes da Silva (since 1 January 2003); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Luiz Inacio LULA da Silva (since 1 January 2003); Vice President Jose ALENCAR Gomes da Silva (since 1 January 2003) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a single four-year term; election last held 1 October 2006 with runoff 29 October 2006 (next to be held 3 October 2010 and, if necessary, 31 October 2010) election results: Luiz Inacio LULA da Silva (PT) reelected president - 60.83%, Geraldo ALCKMIN (PSDB) 39.17%
Legislative branch		bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; 3 members from each state and federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third and two-thirds elected every four years, alternately) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: Federal Senate - last held 1 October 2006 for one-third of the Senate (next to be held in October 2010 for two-thirds of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 October 2006 (next to be held in October 2010) election results: Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PFL 6, PSDB 5, PMDB 4, PTB 3, PT 2, PDT 1, PSB 1, PL 1, PPS 1, PRTB 1, PP 1, PCdoB 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PMDB 89, PT 83, PFL 65, PSDB 65, PP 42, PSB 27, PDT 24, PL 23, PTB 22, PPS 21, PCdoB 13, PV 13, PSC 9, other 17; note - as of 1 January 2009, the composition of the entire legislature is as follows: Federal Senate - seats by party - PMDB 21, DEM (formerly PFL) 12, PSDB 13, PT 12, PTB 7, PDT 5, PR 4, PSB 2, PCdoB 1, PRB 1, PP 1, PSC 1, PSOL 1; Chamber of Deputies - seats by party - PMDB 95, PT 79, PSDB 59, DEM (formerly PFL) 53, PR 44, PP 40, PSB 29, PDT 25, PTB 19, PPS 14, PV 14, PCdoB 13, PSC 11, PMN 5, PRB 4, PHS 3, PSOL 3, PTC 1, PTdoB 1
Judicial branch		Supreme Federal Tribunal or STF (11 ministers are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate); Higher Tribunal of Justice; Regional Federal Tribunals (judges are appointed for life); note - though appointed "for life," judges, like all federal employees, have a mandatory retirement age of 70
Political pressure groups and leaders		Landless Workers' Movement or MST other: labor unions and federations; large farmers' associations; religious groups including evangelical Christian churches and the Catholic Church
International organization participation		AfDB (nonregional member), BIS, CAN (associate), CPLP, FAO, G-15, G-20, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, LAES, LAIA, LAS (observer), Mercosur, MIGA, MINURCAT, MINURSO, MINUSTAH, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, Paris Club (associate), PCA, RG, SICA (observer), UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNASUR, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNITAR, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNMIT, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Flag description		green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress)
Economy - overview		Characterized by large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and Brazil is expanding its presence in world markets. From 2003 to 2007, Brazil ran record trade surpluses and recorded its first current account surpluses since 1992. Productivity gains coupled with high commodity prices contributed to the surge in exports. Brazil improved its debt profile in 2006 by shifting its debt burden toward real denominated and domestically held instruments. LULA da Silva restated his commitment to fiscal responsibility by maintaining the country's primary surplus during the 2006 election. Following his second inauguration in October of that year, LULA da Silva announced a package of further economic reforms to reduce taxes and increase investment in infrastructure. Brazil's debt achieved investment grade status early in 2008, but the government's attempt to achieve strong growth while reducing the debt burden created inflationary pressures. For most of 2008, the Central Bank embarked on a restrictive monetary policy to stem these pressures. Since the onset of the global financial crisis in September, Brazil's currency and its stock market - Bovespa - have significantly lost value, -41% for Bovespa for the year ending 30 December 2008. Brazil incurred another current account deficit in 2008, as world demand and prices for commodities dropped in the second-half of the year.
GDP (purchasing power parity)		$1.998 trillion (2008 est.) $1.901 trillion (2007 est.) $1.798 trillion (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate)		$1.573 trillion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate(%)		5.1% (2008 est.) 5.7% (2007 est.) 4% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP)		$10,200 (2008 est.) $9,800 (2007 est.) $9,400 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector(%)		agriculture: 6.7% industry: 28% services: 65.3% (2008 est.)
Labor force		93.65 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation(%)		agriculture: 20% industry: 14% services: 66% (2003 est.)
Unemployment rate(%)		7.9% (2008 est.) 9.3% (2007 est.)
Population below poverty line(%)		31% (2005)
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%)		lowest 10%: 1.1% highest 10%: 43% (2007)
Distribution of family income - Gini index		56.7 (2005) 60.7 (1998)
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP)		19% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget		revenues: NA expenditures: NA
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%)		5.7% (2008 est.) 3.6% (2007 est.)
Stock of money		$95.03 billion (31 December 2008) $131.1 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi money		$724.5 billion (31 December 2008) $792.8 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit		$1.249 trillion (31 December 2008) $1.377 trillion (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares		$589.4 billion (31 December 2008) $1.37 trillion (31 December 2007) $711.1 billion (31 December 2006)
Economic aid - recipient		$191.9 million (2005)
Public debt(% of GDP)		38.8% of GDP (2008 est.) 52% of GDP (2004 est.)
Agriculture - products		coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
Industries		textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment
Industrial production growth rate(%)		4.3% (2008 est.)
Current account balance		-$28.19 billion (2008 est.) $1.551 billion (2007 est.)
Exports		$197.9 billion (2008 est.) $160.6 billion (2007 est.)
Exports - commodities(%)		transport equipment, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee, autos
Exports - partners(%)		US 14.4%, China 12.4%, Argentina 8.4%, Netherlands 5%, Germany 4.5% (2008)
Imports		$173.1 billion (2008 est.) $120.6 billion (2007 est.)
Imports - commodities(%)		machinery, electrical and transport equipment, chemical products, oil, automotive parts, electronics
Imports - partners(%)		US 14.9%, China 11.6%, Argentina 7.9%, Germany 7% (2008)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold		$193.8 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $180.3 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Debt - external		$262.9 billion (31 December 2008) $240.5 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home		$294 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $248.9 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad		$127.5 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $107.1 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Exchange rates		reals (BRL) per US dollar - 1.8644 (2008 est.), 1.85 (2007 est.), 2.1761 (2006), 2.4344 (2005), 2.9251 (2004)
Currency (code)		real (BRL)
Telephones - main lines in use		41.141 million (2008)
Telephones - mobile cellular		150.641 million (2008)
Telephone system		general assessment: good working system; fixed-line connections have remained relatively stable in recent years and stand at about 20 per 100 persons; less expensive mobile cellular technology is a major driver in expanding telephone service to the low-income segment of the population with mobile-cellular telephone density reaching 80 per 100 persons domestic: extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations; mobile-cellular usage has more than tripled in the past 5 years international: country code - 55; landing point for a number of submarine cables, including Atlantis 2, that provide direct links to South and Central America, the Caribbean, the US, Africa, and Europe; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to Mercosur Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station (2008)
Internet country code		.br
Internet users		64.948 million (2008)
Airports		4,000 (2009)
Pipelines(km)		condensate/gas 62 km; gas 9,892 km; liquid petroleum gas 353 km; oil 4,517 km; refined products 4,465 km (2008)
Roadways(km)		total: 1,751,868 km paved: 96,353 km unpaved: 1,655,515 km (2004)
Ports and terminals		Guaiba, Ilha Grande, Paranagua, Rio Grande, Santos, Sao Sebastiao, Tubarao
Military branches		Brazilian Army (Exercito Brasileiro, EB), Brazilian Navy (Marinha do Brasil (MB), includes Naval Air and Marine Corps (Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais)), Brazilian Air Force (Forca Aerea Brasileira, FAB) (2009)
Military service age and obligation(years of age)		21-45 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 9 to 12 months; 17-45 years of age for voluntary service; an increasing percentage of the ranks are "long-service" volunteer professionals; women were allowed to serve in the armed forces beginning in early 1980s when the Brazilian Army became the first army in South America to accept women into career ranks; women serve in Navy and Air Force only in Women's Reserve Corps (2001)
Manpower available for military service		males age 16-49: 52,523,552 females age 16-49: 52,628,945 (2009 est.)
Manpower fit for military service		males age 16-49: 38,043,555 females age 16-49: 44,267,520 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually		male: 1,690,031 female: 1,630,851 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures(% of GDP)		2.6% of GDP (2006 est.)
Disputes - international		unruly region at convergence of Argentina-Brazil-Paraguay borders is locus of money laundering, smuggling, arms and illegal narcotics trafficking, and fundraising for extremist organizations; uncontested boundary dispute with Uruguay over Isla Brasilera at the confluence of the Quarai/Cuareim and Invernada rivers, that form a tripoint with Argentina; the Itaipu Dam reservoir covers over a once contested section of Brazil-Paraguay boundary west of Guaira Falls on the Rio Parana; an accord placed the long-disputed Isla Suarez/Ilha de Guajara-Mirim, a fluvial island on the Rio Mamore, under Bolivian administration in 1958, but sovereignty remains in dispute
Electricity - production(kWh)		438.8 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - production by source(%)		fossil fuel: 8.3% hydro: 82.7% nuclear: 4.4% other: 4.6% (2001)
Electricity - consumption(kWh)		404.3 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - exports(kWh)		2.034 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - imports(kWh)		42.06 billion kWh; note - supplied by Paraguay (2008 est.)
Oil - production(bbl/day)		2.422 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - consumption(bbl/day)		2.52 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - exports(bbl/day)		570,100 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - imports(bbl/day)		632,900 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - proved reserves(bbl)		12.62 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
Natural gas - production(cu m)		12.62 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - consumption(cu m)		23.65 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - exports(cu m)		0 cu m (2008)
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m)		365 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%)		0.6% (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS		730,000 (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths		15,000 (2007 est.)
Literacy(%)		definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 88.6% male: 88.4% female: 88.8% (2004 est.)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)(years)		total: 14 years male: 14 years female: 15 years (2005)
Education expenditures(% of GDP)		4% of GDP (2004)