These changes in the war came at the peak of the fighting. In
1985-86 Soviet forces launched their largest and most effective
assaults on the mujahidin supply lines adjacent to Pakistan.
Major campaigns had also forced the mujahidin into the defensive
near Herat and Qandahar.
At the same time a sharp increase in military support for the
mujahidin from the United States and Saudi Arabia allowed it to
regain the guerilla war initiative. By late August 1986, the
first Stinger ground-to-air missiles were used successfully. For
nearly a year they would deny the Soviets and the Kabul
government effective use of air power.
These shifts in momentum reinforced the inclination of the new
Gorbachev government to view further escalation of the war as a
misuse of Soviet political and military capital. Such doubts had
developed prior to the decision to install Najibullah. In April
1985, one month after Mikhail Gorbachev assumed the Soviet
leadership, its May Day greeting to the Kabul government failed
to refer to its "revolutionary solidarity" with the PDPA, a
signal in Marxist-Leninist rhetoric that their relationship had
been downgraded. Several months later, Karmal suggested the
inclusion of non-party members in the Revolutionary Council and
the promotion of a "mixed economy." These tentative concessions
toward non-Marxists won Soviet praise, but divergence in policy
became obvious at the Twenty-Seventh Congress of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union in February 1986. Gorbachev's "bleeding
wound" speech hinted at a decision to withdraw "in the nearest
future." In his own speech Karmal made no reference to
withdrawal. In early May he was replaced by Najibullah.
Najibullah was obliged to move toward the evolving Soviet
position with great caution. Karmal's followers could use any
concessions to non-Marxists or acceptance of a Soviet withdrawal
against him. Accordingly, he moved in conflicting directions,
insisting there was no room for non-Marxists in government, only
offering the possibility of clemency to "bandits" who had been
duped by Mujahidin leaders into resisting the government. In
addition to air strikes and shelling across the border, KHAD
terrorist activity in Pakistan reached its peak under
Najibullah.
Late in 1986 Najibullah had stabilized his political position
enough to begin matching Moscow's moves toward withdrawal. In
September he set up the National Compromise Commission to contact
counterrevolutionaries "in order to complete the Saur Revolution
in its new phase." Allegedly some 40,000 rebels were contacted.
In November Karmal was replaced as now-ceremonial president by a
non-party member, Haji Muhammad Samkanai, signaling the PDPA's
willingness to open government to non-Marxists.
At the end of 1986 Najibullah unveiled a program of "National
Reconciliation." It offered a six-month cease-fire and
discussions leading to a possible coalition government in which
the PDPA would give up its government monopoly. Contact was to be
made with "anti-state armed groups." Affiliation was suggested,
allowing resistance forces to retain areas under their
control.
In fact much of the substance of the program was happening on
the ground in the form of negotiations with disillusioned
mujahidin commanders who agreed to cooperate as government
militia. The mujahidin leadership rhetorically claimed that the
program had no chance for success. For his part Najibullah
assured his followers that there would be no compromise over "the
accomplishments" of the Saur Revolution. It remained a standoff.
While a strenuous propaganda effort was directed at the both the
Afghan refugees and Pakistanis in Pakistan's Northwest Frontier
Province, the program was essentially a sop to Moscow's hope to
tie a favorable political settlement to its desire to pull its
forces out.
Najibullah's concrete achievements were the consolidation of
his armed forces, the expansion of co-opted militia forces and
the acceptance of his government by an increasing proportion of
urban population under his control. As a propaganda ploy
"National Reconciliation" was a means of gaining time to prepare
for civil war after the Soviet departure.
|
Background | | Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and founded Afghanistan in 1747. The country served as a buffer between the British and Russian empires until it won independence from notional British control in 1919. A brief experiment in democracy ended in a 1973 coup and a 1978 Communist counter-coup. The Soviet Union invaded in 1979 to support the tottering Afghan Communist regime, touching off a long and destructive war. The USSR withdrew in 1989 under relentless pressure by internationally supported anti-Communist mujahedin rebels. A series of subsequent civil wars saw Kabul finally fall in 1996 to the Taliban, a hardline Pakistani-sponsored movement that emerged in 1994 to end the country's civil war and anarchy. Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City, a US, Allied, and anti-Taliban Northern Alliance military action toppled the Taliban for sheltering Osama BIN LADIN. The UN-sponsored Bonn Conference in 2001 established a process for political reconstruction that included the adoption of a new constitution, a presidential election in 2004, and National Assembly elections in 2005. In December 2004, Hamid KARZAI became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan and the National Assembly was inaugurated the following December. Despite gains toward building a stable central government, a resurgent Taliban and continuing provincial instability - particularly in the south and the east - remain serious challenges for the Afghan Government.
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Location | | Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran
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Area(sq km) | | total: 652,230 sq km
land: 652,230 sq km
water: 0 sq km
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Geographic coordinates | | 33 00 N, 65 00 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 5,529 km
border countries: China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km
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Coastline(km) | | 0 km (landlocked)
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Climate | | arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m
highest point: Noshak 7,485 m
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Natural resources | | natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones
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Land use(%) | | arable land: 12.13%
permanent crops: 0.21%
other: 87.66% (2005)
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Irrigated land(sq km) | | 27,200 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 65 cu km (1997)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 23.26 cu km/yr (2%/0%/98%)
per capita: 779 cu m/yr (2000)
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Natural hazards | | damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding; droughts
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Environment - current issues | | limited natural fresh water resources; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials); desertification; air and water pollution
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
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Geography - note | | landlocked; the Hindu Kush mountains that run northeast to southwest divide the northern provinces from the rest of the country; the highest peaks are in the northern Vakhan (Wakhan Corridor)
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Population | | 28.396 million (July 2009 est.)
note: this is a significantly revised figure; the previous estimate of 33,609,937 was extrapolated from the last Afghan census held in 1979, which was never completed because of the Soviet invasion; a new Afghan census is scheduled to take place in 2010
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 44.5% (male 7,664,670/female 7,300,446)
15-64 years: 53% (male 9,147,846/female 8,679,800)
65 years and over: 2.4% (male 394,572/female 422,603) (2009 est.)
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Median age(years) | | total: 17.6 years
male: 17.6 years
female: 17.6 years (2009 est.)
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Population growth rate(%) | | 2.629% (2009 est.)
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Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 45.46 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 19.18 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
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Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | 21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 24% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 5.4% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.93 male(s)/female
total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 151.95 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 156.01 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 147.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 44.64 years
male: 44.47 years
female: 44.81 years (2009 est.)
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Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 6.53 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Afghan(s)
adjective: Afghan
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Pashtun 42%, Tajik 27%, Hazara 9%, Uzbek 9%, Aimak 4%, Turkmen 3%, Baloch 2%, other 4%
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Religions(%) | | Sunni Muslim 80%, Shia Muslim 19%, other 1%
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Languages(%) | | Afghan Persian or Dari (official) 50%, Pashto (official) 35%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much bilingualism
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Country name | | conventional long form: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
conventional short form: Afghanistan
local long form: Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Afghanestan
local short form: Afghanestan
former: Republic of Afghanistan
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Government type | | Islamic republic
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Capital | | name: Kabul
geographic coordinates: 34 31 N, 69 11 E
time difference: UTC+4.5 (9.5 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
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Administrative divisions | | 34 provinces (welayat, singular - welayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamyan, Daykundi, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghor, Helmand, Herat, Jowzjan, Kabul, Kandahar, Kapisa, Khost, Kunar, Kunduz, Laghman, Logar, Nangarhar, Nimroz, Nuristan, Paktika, Paktiya, Panjshir, Parwan, Samangan, Sar-e Pul, Takhar, Uruzgan, Wardak, Zabul
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Constitution | | new constitution drafted 14 December 2003-4 January 2004; signed 16 January 2004; ratified 26 January 2004
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Legal system | | based on mixed civil and sharia law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
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Executive branch | | chief of state: President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Hamid KARZAI (since 7 December 2004); First Vice President Fahim KHAN (since 19 November 2009); Second Vice President Abdul Karim KHALILI (since 7 December 2004) note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; former King ZAHIR Shah held the honorific, "Father of the Country," and presided symbolically over certain occasions but lacked any governing authority; the honorific is not hereditary; King ZAHIR Shah died on 23 July 2007
head of government: President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Hamid KARZAI (since 7 December 2004); First Vice President Fahim KHAN (since 19 November 2009); Second Vice President Abdul Karim KHALILI (since 7 December 2004)
cabinet: 25 ministers; note - under the new constitution, ministers are appointed by the president and approved by the National Assembly
elections: the president and two vice presidents are elected by direct vote for a five-year term (eligible for a second term); if no candidate receives 50% or more of the vote in the first round of voting, the two candidates with the most votes will participate in a second round; a president can only be elected for two terms; election last held 20 August 2009 (next to be held in 2014)
election results: Hamid KARZAI reelected president; percent of vote - Hamid KARZAI 49.67%, Abdullah ABDULLAH 30.59%, Ramazan BASHARDOST 10.46%, Ashraf GHANI 2.94%; other 6.34%
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Legislative branch | | the bicameral National Assembly consists of the Meshrano Jirga or House of Elders (102 seats, one-third elected from provincial councils for four-year terms, one-third elected from local district councils for three-year terms, and one-third nominated by the president for five-year terms) and the Wolesi Jirga or House of People (no more than 249 seats), directly elected for five-year terms
note: on rare occasions the government may convene a Loya Jirga (Grand Council) on issues of independence, national sovereignty, and territorial integrity; it can amend the provisions of the constitution and prosecute the president; it is made up of members of the National Assembly and chairpersons of the provincial and district councils
elections: last held 18 September 2005 (next election expected in 2010)
election results: the single non-transferable vote (SNTV) system used in the election did not make use of political party slates; most candidates ran as independents
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Judicial branch | | the constitution establishes a nine-member Stera Mahkama or Supreme Court (its nine justices are appointed for 10-year terms by the president with approval of the Wolesi Jirga) and subordinate High Courts and Appeals Courts; there is also a minister of justice; a separate Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission established by the Bonn Agreement is charged with investigating human rights abuses and war crimes
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | other: religious groups; tribal leaders; ethnically based groups; Taliban
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International organization participation | | ADB, CP, ECO, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), SAARC, SACEP, SCO (guest), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer)
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Flag description | | three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), red, and green, with the national emblem in white centered on the red band and slightly overlapping the other two bands; the center of the emblem features a mosque with pulpit and flags on either side, below the mosque are numerals for the solar year 1298 (1919 in the Gregorian calendar, the year of Afghan independence from the UK); this central image is circled by a border consisting of sheaves of wheat on the left and right, in the upper-center is an Arabic inscription of the Shahada (Muslim creed) below which are rays of the rising sun over the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great"), and at bottom center is a scroll bearing the name Afghanistan
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Economy - overview | | Afghanistan's economy is recovering from decades of conflict. The economy has improved significantly since the fall of the Taliban regime in 2001 largely because of the infusion of international assistance, the recovery of the agricultural sector, and service sector growth. Despite the progress of the past few years, Afghanistan is extremely poor, landlocked, and highly dependent on foreign aid, agriculture, and trade with neighboring countries. Much of the population continues to suffer from shortages of housing, clean water, electricity, medical care, and jobs. Criminality, insecurity, and the Afghan Government's inability to extend rule of law to all parts of the country pose challenges to future economic growth. It will probably take the remainder of the decade and continuing donor aid and attention to significantly raise Afghanistan's living standards from its current level, among the lowest in the world. International pledges made by more than 60 countries and international financial institutions at the Berlin Donors Conference for Afghan reconstruction in March 2004 reached $8.9 billion for 2004-09. While the international community remains committed to Afghanistan's development, pledging over $57 billion at three donors' conferences since 2002, Kabul will need to overcome a number of challenges. Expanding poppy cultivation and a growing opium trade generate roughly $3 billion in illicit economic activity and looms as one of Kabul's most serious policy concerns. Other long-term challenges include: budget sustainability, job creation, corruption, government capacity, and rebuilding war torn infrastructure.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $22.32 billion (2008 est.)
$21.58 billion (2007 est.)
$19.25 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate) | | $11.71 billion (2008 est.)
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|
GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 3.4% (2008 est.)
12.1% (2007 est.)
8.2% (2006 est.)
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|
GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $800 (2008 est.)
$800 (2007 est.)
$700 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 31%
industry: 26%
services: 43%
note: data exclude opium production (2008 est.)
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Labor force | | 15 million (2004 est.)
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Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 80%
industry: 10%
services: 10% (2004 est.)
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Unemployment rate(%) | | 40% (2008 est.)
40% (2005 est.)
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Population below poverty line(%) | | 53% (2003)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | NA% of GDP
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Budget | | revenues: $890 million
expenditures: $2.7 billion
note: Afghanistan has also received $2.6 billion from the Reconstruction Trust Fund and $63 million from the Law and Order Trust Fund (2007 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 13% (2007 est.)
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Stock of money | | $1.688 billion (31 December 2008)
$1.426 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money | | $1.219 billion (31 December 2008)
$958.6 million (31 December 2007)
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Stock of domestic credit | | $363.6 million (31 December 2008)
$12.04 million (31 December 2007)
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|
Market value of publicly traded shares | | $NA
|
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Economic aid - recipient | | $2.775 billion (2005)
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|
Public debt(% of GDP) | | NA% of GDP
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Agriculture - products | | opium, wheat, fruits, nuts; wool, mutton, sheepskins, lambskins
|
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Industries | | small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, coal, copper
|
|
Industrial production growth rate(%) | | NA%
|
|
Current account balance | | -$67 million (2007 est.)
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Exports | | $327 million (2007)
$274 million (2006); note - not including illicit exports or reexports
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Exports - commodities(%) | | opium, fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems
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Exports - partners(%) | | India 20.5%, Pakistan 18.5%, US 17.2%, Tajikistan 13.3%, Netherlands 7.2% (2008)
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Imports | | $4.85 billion (2007)
$3.823 billion (2006)
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Imports - commodities(%) | | capital goods, food, textiles, petroleum products
|
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Imports - partners(%) | | Pakistan 36.9%, US 9.5%, Germany 7.7%, India 5.2% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $NA
|
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Debt - external | | $8 billion (2004)
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Exchange rates | | afghanis (AFA) per US dollar - 50 (2007), 46 (2006), 47.7 (2005), 48 (2004), 49 (2003)
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Currency (code) | | afghani (AFA)
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 460,000 (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 8.45 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: limited landline telephone service; an increasing number of Afghans utilize mobile-cellular phone networks
domestic: aided by the presence of multiple providers, mobile-cellular telephone service is improving rapidly
international: country code - 93; five VSAT's installed in Kabul, Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, Kandahar, and Jalalabad provide international and domestic voice and data connectivity (2007)
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Internet country code | | .af
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Internet users | | 500,000 (2008)
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Airports | | 51 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | gas 466 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 42,150 km
paved: 12,350 km
unpaved: 29,800 km (2006)
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Ports and terminals | | Kheyrabad, Shir Khan
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Military branches | | Afghan Armed Forces: Afghan National Army (ANA, includes Afghan National Army Air Corps) (2009)
|
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Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 22 years of age; inductees are contracted into service for a 4-year term (2005)
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Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 7,431,147
females age 16-49: 7,004,819 (2008 est.)
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Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 4,371,193
females age 16-49: 4,072,945 (2009 est.)
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Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 382,720
female: 361,733 (2009 est.)
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Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 1.9% of GDP (2006 est.)
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Disputes - international | | Pakistan has built fences in some portions of its border with Afghanistan which remains open in some areas to foreign terrorists and other illegal activities
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Refugees and internally displaced persons | | IDPs: 132,246 (mostly Pashtuns and Kuchis displaced in south and west due to drought and instability) (2007)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 839 million kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 36.3%
hydro: 63.7%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
|
|
Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 1.01 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
|
Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 230 million kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 0 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 5,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 0 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
|
Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 4,404 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
|
Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 0 bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 30 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 30 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
|
|
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 49.55 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 0.01% (2001 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | NA
|
|
HIV/AIDS - deaths | | NA
|
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Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
vectorborne disease: malaria
animal contact disease: rabies
note: highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified in this country; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds (2009)
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 28.1%
male: 43.1%
female: 12.6% (2000 est.)
|
|
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)(years) | | total: 8 years
male: 11 years
female: 4 years (2004)
|
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | NA
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