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Eritrea: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Colonial Era: Until the late nineteenth century, the high plateau of present-day Eritrea was a part of the Ethiopian province of Tigray. Its inhabitants, racially, culturally, and linguistically Tigrayan, were subjects of the Ethiopian crown, whereas the surrounding lowlanders were for the most part independent. The boundaries of modern Eritrea were established during the period of Italian colonization that began in the late 1800s. An Italian shipping company, Rubatinno Shipping, purchased the port of Assab from a local ruler. In turn, the Italian government took over the port in 1882, hoping to use Eritrea as a launching point for the colonization of Ethiopia. The Italian presence in the Horn of Africa was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale with Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia (r. 1889–1913), although Menelik would later renounce the agreement. For the next half-century, relations between Ethiopia and Italy, despite intermittent diplomatic agreements, were strained by repeated Italian efforts to expand their colonial base into Somali territory and Ethiopia, most notably in 1896, when Ethiopia defeated the Italian army in Tigray. Italian administration of Eritrea brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Furthermore, the Italians employed many Eritreans in public service (in particular in the police and public works departments) and oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. Click to Enlarge Image
Benito Mussolini’s rise to power in Italy in 1922 brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. The Fascists imposed harsh rule that stressed the political and racial superiority of Italians. Segregation was established, and Eritreans were demoted to menial positions in the public sector. Although Rome continued to implement agricultural reforms, these took place largely on farms owned by Italian colonists. The Fascist dictatorship regarded the colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly. True to form, Italy used Eritrea as a base from which to launch its 1935–36 campaign to colonize Ethiopia.
World War II, British Rule, and Federalization: Although Italian colonization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries gave Eritrea its boundaries, Eritrean separatism as a political goal had its roots in World War II. British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the Battle of Keren and placed the colony under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate. Absent agreement among the Allies about the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and into 1950. In the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and parceled off to Sudan and Ethiopia. The Soviet Union, anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony. Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state.
In the absence of Allied agreement, and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination, a United Nations (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the hope of finding a solution. The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating British administration of Eritrea no later than September 15, 1952. The British, faced with a deadline for leaving, held elections on March 16, 1952, for a Representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on July 10. On September 11, 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia (r. 1930–74) ratified the constitution. The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly.
The details of Eritrea’s association with Ethiopia were established by the UN General Assembly resolution of September 15, 1952. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of exposure to Italian and especially British methods of governance and political life, Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians, and a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea’s independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The emperor pressured Eritrea’s elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the federation and return to the imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order.
The Armed Struggle for Independence: Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in 1958 with the founding of the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities.
Even as the ELM was being neutralized, a new organization of Eritrean nationalists was forming. In 1960 Eritrean exiles in Cairo founded the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as Syria and Iraq sympathized with Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF.
The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By 1967 the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of Massawa. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles in early 1967 in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents, the resistance persisted.
By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared martial law in Eritrea and had deployed roughly half his army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics, however, eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of another group, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). The leadership of this multiethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces.
In September 1974, a group of Ethiopian military officers deposed the emperor and established a military government in Addis Ababa known as the Derg, which allied itself with the Soviet Union. The Derg immediately turned its attention to the Eritrean question. Some in its ranks pressed for a decisive military solution, while others favored a negotiated settlement. Influential Derg nationalists, like the imperial regime, endorsed the ideal of "Greater Ethiopia," that is, a unitary, multiethnic state, and eventually decided to continue to use force in dealing with Eritrean secessionists. In response, the ELF and EPLF maintained their struggle for Eritrean independence. Armed conflict between the Derg and (mostly) the EPLF continued throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with neither side able to score a decisive victory. In particular, the EPLF stronghold of Nakfa in northern Eritrea withstood repeated assaults by the Ethiopian army. Beginning in March 1988, however, a series of offensives against demoralized Ethiopian forces eventually led to EPLF control of all Eritrea by late May 1991. At the same time that the EPLF was defeating the Ethiopian army in Eritrea, Tigrayan and allied rebel forces took over northern Ethiopia and drove the Derg from power.
Independence: After a referendum showing that nearly 100 percent of Eritreans favored separation, Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia on May 24, 1993, a development many Ethiopians opposed. Isaias Afwerki, the leader of the EPLF, became the first president of Eritrea. In 1994 the EPLF became a political party, the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice. It remains the only legal political party in Eritrea. President Isaias and his counterpart in Addis Ababa, Meles Zenawi, a fellow Tigrayan, established a cordial relationship, and a variety of agreements were signed between the two nations in the years following independence. Five years after independence, however, tensions over economic policies and border disputes led to war between the two impoverished nations. Before a cease-fire was reached in June 2000, an estimated 100,000 soldiers had lost their lives, and a quarter of the population of Eritrea had been displaced by fighting. In addition, Eritrea suffered extensive damage to its already weak infrastructure and economy, from which it has yet to recover. On December 12, 2000, Eritrea and Ethiopia signed a final peace agreement, but they continue to quarrel over the precise demarcation of their common border.
As of mid-2005, Eritrea’s relations with Ethiopia remain extremely tense. Some 3,300 UN peacekeepers patrol a demilitarized zone inside Eritrea to monitor the cease-fire, and the possibility of renewed warfare cannot be ruled out. Eritrea’s relations with Sudan and the West are problematic, and the nation has become increasingly isolated. Although a constitution has been adopted that calls for elections and political reforms, these have yet to take place. The government of Isaias Afwerki has become intolerant and authoritarian; it has imposed press censorship and has imprisoned many of its political opponents. Discontent is widespread and growing but is harshly suppressed. Today, Eritrea is free from Ethiopian domination, but it is far from a democratic state.
AllAfrica.com,Eid AL-Fetir was today celebrated across the nation in a colorful manner. The celebrations here in the capital took place at Bahti Meskerem Square. ... Ethiopia: Eritrea's Proxy War Jeopardizing Regional Stability ... - Oct 22, 2006 AllAfrica.com,Prime Minister Meles Zenawi on Thursday accused Eritrea of jeopardizing regional stability in its efforts to wage a proxy war against Ethiopia. ... US envoy accuses Eritrea of attacking Ethiopia through proxies in ... - Oct 23, 2006 AND,By www.andnetwork .com. US Rep. Chris Smith (R-NJ) today expressed outrage at the Ethiopian government’s continued silence about ... Eritrea says it not arming Somali Islamists - Oct 20, 2006 Reuters AlertNet,ASMARA, Oct 20 (Reuters) - Eritrea dismissed as a "pure fabrication" a US diplomat's charge that it was opening a new front against arch-foe Ethiopia by arming ... Eritrea: Eritrean-Ethiopian Border Zone is Volatile After Troop ... - Oct 20, 2006 AllAfrica.com,The situation inside the buffer zone along the disputed border between Eritrea and Ethiopia has become volatile after Eritrea moved 1,500 troops and 14 tanks ... Eritrea: Eritrea Rejects Jendayi Fraser's Press Statement - Oct 20, 2006 AllAfrica.com,Secretary of State for African Affairs, Jendayi Fraser's statement to the press in Nairobi on the 19 th of October 2006 , alleging that " Eritrea has opened ... A look at US deaths in Afghan fighting - Oct 23, 2006 Jordan Falls News,The military lists these other locations as: Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba; Djibouti; Eritrea; Jordan; Kenya; Kyrgyzstan; Philippines; Seychelles; Sudan ... No dirty tricks anymore from the nephews in Ethiopia & Eritrea - Oct 22, 2006 Nazret.com,A new front is about to emerge in the east and the question is if the Ethiopian population will unite when Tigray is forced into a second war with Eritrea. ... Eritrea: Deploying Military Forces into Temporary Security Zone - Oct 21, 2006 NewsBlaze,The United States calls on Eritrea to respond to the October 17 statement issued by the United Nations Security Council by immediately withdrawing the tanks ... Eritrea: Soil And Water Conservation Activities in Geleb Sub-Zone - Oct 20, 2006 AllAfrica.com,The inhabitants of 11 administrative areas in Geleb sub-zone are carrying out effective soil and water conservation activities. ... Eritrea: "Physicians for Peace" Extends Medical Assistance to ... - Oct 20, 2006 AllAfrica.com,An 11-member group from "Physicians for Peace" has extended assistance of surgical and other different medical equipment and drugs to Mendefera Referral ... Ethiopia, Eritrea exchange accusations - Oct 17, 2006 San Jose Mercury News,ADDIS ABABA, Ethiopia - Ethiopia and Eritrea traded accusations of peace-deal violations Tuesday, a day after the UN said Eritrea was moving troops and tanks ... Ethiopia calls Eritrea troop move minor provocation - Oct 17, 2006 Reuters South Africa,ADDIS ABABA (Reuters) - Ethiopia said on Tuesday it would not respond militarily to what it called a "minor provocation" after Eritrea moved troops into a UN ... UN Calls on Eritrea to Withdraw Troops - Oct 17, 2006 Forbes,The UN Security Council called on Eritrea Tuesday to immediately withdraw troops and tanks from a buffer zone next to Ethiopia and urged both countries to ... UN Security Council calls on Eritrea to immediately withdraw ... - Oct 17, 2006 International Herald Tribune,AP. UNITED NATIONS The UN Security Council called on Eritrea Tuesday to immediately withdraw troops and tanks from a buffer zone established after a 2 1/2-year ... Ethiopia's president urges Eritrea to talk peace - Oct 19, 2006 EiTB,The United Nations said Eritrea's decision to move troops and tanks into a UN buffer zone between the two countries was a "major breach" of a 2000 peace ... Un Accuses Eritrea Cease-fire Breach - Oct 16, 2006 Guardian Unlimited,UNITED NATIONS (AP) - The United Nations on Monday accused Eritrea of moving 1,500 troops and 14 tanks into a buffer zone established after a 2-year border war ... UN Accuses Eritrea Cease-Fire Breach - Oct 16, 2006 Forbes,The United Nations on Monday accused Eritrea of moving 1,500 troops and 14 tanks into a buffer zone established after a 2 1/2-year border war with Ethiopia in ... UN Accuses Eritrea Cease-Fire Breach - Oct 16, 2006 CBS News,...(AP) The United Nations on Monday accused Eritrea of moving ... Eritrea's action raised the threat of renewed war between the feuding Horn of Africa neighbors. ... ERITREA-ETHIOPIA: 'Troops harvesting buffer zone' - Oct 17, 2006 AND,NAIROBI, Eritrea has moved 1,500 troops and 14 tanks to a buffer zone along its border with Ethiopia, which was created after the war between the two countries ... UN warns Eritrea over troop shifts nearer Ethiopia - Oct 18, 2006 Reuters AlertNet,UNITED NATIONS, Oct 18 (Reuters) - The United Nations has warned Eritrea that its shift of troops and tanks into a UN buffer zone along the Ethiopian border ... Stay away from buffer zone, UN tells Eritrea - Oct 18, 2006 Independent Online,New York - The United Nations has warned Eritrea that its shift of troops and tanks into a UN buffer zone along the Ethiopian border could raise tensions in ... UN: Eritrea breaching ceasefire - Oct 16, 2006 News24,New York - The United Nations accused Eritrea on Monday of moving 1 500 troops and 14 tanks into a buffer zone established after a 2½ year border war with ... Ethiopia calls Eritrea troop move minor provocation - Oct 17, 2006 ReutersPrime Minister Meles Zenawi said on Tuesday his country would not respond militarily to what he called a "minor provocation" after Eritrea moved troops into a ... ERITREA-ETHIOPIA: 'Troops harvesting buffer zone' - Oct 17, 2006 Reuters AlertNet,NAIROBI, 17 October (IRIN) - Eritrea has moved 1,500 troops and 14 tanks to a buffer zone along its border with Ethiopia, which was created after the war ... Ethiopia and Eritrea trade accusations - Oct 17, 2006 EiTB,The UN accused Eritrea on Monday of moving troops and tanks into a buffer zone established after the Horn of Africa rivals went to war over their still ... US accuses Eritrea of providing arms to Somali Islamists - Oct 19, 2006 EiTB,Eritrea has long denied any involvement in Somalia, but a UN Security Council report in May said it has sent weapons to the Islamists repeatedly in a bid to ... Eritrea moving troops closer to Ethiopia - UN - Oct 16, 2006 Independent Online,New York - The United Nations accused Eritrea on Monday of moving soldiers and tanks closer to Ethiopia in violation of a six-year-old peace agreement ending a ... UN says Eritrea moving troops closer to Ethiopia - Oct 16, 2006 Reuters AlertNet,UNITED NATIONS, Oct 16 (Reuters) - The United Nations accused Eritrea on Monday of moving soldiers and tanks closer to Ethiopia in violation of a six-year-old ... Eritrea defends troop movement in UN buffer zone - Oct 17, 2006 ReutersADDIS ABABA, Oct 17 (Reuters) - Eritrea on Tuesday defended its decision to move troops into a UN-monitored buffer zone along its border with Ethiopia, citing ... Eritrea troops near Ethiopia border - Oct 16, 2006 Aljazeera.net,The United Nations has accused Eritrea of moving soldiers and tanks closer to Ethiopia in violation of a six-year-old peace agreement ending a border war ... US accuses Eritrea of arming Somali Islamists - Oct 19, 2006 ReutersNAIROBI (Reuters) - The United States accused Eritrea on Thursday of opening another front against its foe Ethiopia by shipping arms to Somali Islamists who ... Meles urges Eritrea, rebels to choose dialogue - Oct 19, 2006 Mail & Guardian Online,Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi on Thursday urged Eritrea and rebel groups he said it supports to talk peace and stop trying to destabilise his Horn of ... US urges Eritrea pullback from Ethiopia buffer zone - Oct 19, 2006 Reuters South Africa,WASHINGTON (Reuters) - The United States urged Eritrea on Thursday to withdraw its forces from a UN buffer zone along the Ethiopian border amid concerns the ... UN chief urges Eritrea to withdraw from security zone with ... - Oct 16, 2006 People's Daily Online,General Kofi Annan on Monday expressed deep concern at the incursion by Eritrean troops into the Temporary Security Zone(TSZ) separating Eritrea from Ethiopia ... Eritrea sends troops to Ethiopia border, violating peace deal - UN - Oct 17, 2006 Monsters and Critics.com,New York/Nairobi - Ethiopia accused its neighbour and foe Eritrea on Tuesday of breaking a peace deal after it sent at least 1,500 troops and 14 tanks into a UN ... Security Council urges Eritrea to ‘immediately withdraw’ ... - Oct 17, 2006 AND,Expressing deep concern over reports that Eritrea has moved around 1,500 troops and 15 tanks into the Temporary Security Zone with Ethiopia, the United Nations ... This series of profiles of foreign nations is part of the Country Studies Program, formerly the Army Area Handbook Program. The profiles offer brief, summarized information on a country’s historical background, geography, society, economy, transportation and telecommunications, government and politics, and national security. In addition to being featured in the front matter of published Country Studies, they are now being prepared as stand-alone reference aides for all countries in the series, as well as for a number of additional countries of interest. The profiles offer reasonably current country information independent of the existence of a recently published Country Study and will be updated annually or more frequently as events warrant. |
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