After Ali's murder in 661, Muawiyah--the governor of Syria
during the early Arab conquests, a kinsman of Uthman, and a
member of the Quraysh lineage of the Prophet--proclaimed himself
caliph and established his capital in Damascus. From there he
conquered Muslim enemies to the east, south, and west and fought
the Byzantines to the north. Muawiyah is considered the architect
of the Islamic empire and a political genius. Under his
governorship Syria became the most prosperous province of the
caliphate. Muawiyah created a professional army and, although
rigorous in training them, won the undying loyalty of his troops
for his generous and regularly paid salaries. Heir to Syrian
shipyards built by the Byzantines, he established the caliphate's
first navy. He also conceived and established an efficient
government, including a comptroller of finance and a postal
system.
Muawiyah cultivated the goodwill of Christian Syrians by
recruiting them for the army at double pay, by appointing
Christians to many high offices, and by appointing his son by his
Christian wife as his successor. His sensitivity to human
behavior accounted in great part for his political success. The
modern Syrian image of Muawiyah is that of a man with enormous
amounts of hilm, a combination of magnanimity, tolerance,
and self-discipline, and of duha, political expertise--
qualities Syrians continue to expect of their leaders. By 732 the
dynasty he founded had conquered Spain and Tours in France and
stretched east to Samarkand and Kabul, far exceeding the greatest
boundaries of the Roman Empire
(see
fig. 4). Thus, Damascus
achieved a glory unrivaled among cities of the eighth century.
The Umayyad Muslims established a military government in
Syria and used the country primarily as a base of operations.
They lived aloof from the people and at first made little effort
to convert Christians to Islam. The Umayyads administered the
lands in the manner of the Byzantines, giving complete authority
to provincial governors.
In the administration of law, the Umayyads followed the
traditions set by the Hellenistic monarchies and the Roman
Empire. The conqueror's law--in this case Muslim law (sharia)--
applied only to those of the same faith or nationality as the
conquerors. For non-Muslims, civil law was the law of their
particular millet (separate religious community, also
called milla); religious leaders administered the law of
the millet. This system prevailed throughout Islam and has
survived in Syria's legal codes
(see Islam
, ch. 2;
Constitutional Framework
, ch. 4).
During the 89 years of Umayyad rule, most Syrians became
Muslims, and the Arabic language replaced Aramaic. The Umayyads
minted coins, built hospitals, and constructed underground canals
to bring water to the towns. The country prospered both
economically and intellectually. Foreign trade expanded, and
educated Jews and Christians, many of them Greek, found
employment in the caliphal courts, where they studied and
practiced medicine, alchemy, and philosophy.
|
Background | | Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence in 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, and experienced a series of military coups during its first decades. Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority Alawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops - stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role - were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah. In May 2007 Bashar al-ASAD was elected to his second term as President.
|
|
Location | | Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Lebanon and Turkey
|
|
Area(sq km) | | total: 185,180 sq km
land: 183,630 sq km
water: 1,550 sq km
note: includes 1,295 sq km of Israeli-occupied territory
|
|
Geographic coordinates | | 35 00 N, 38 00 E
|
|
Land boundaries(km) | | total: 2,253 km
border countries: Iraq 605 km, Israel 76 km, Jordan 375 km, Lebanon 375 km, Turkey 822 km
|
|
Coastline(km) | | 193 km
|
|
Climate | | mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically in Damascus
|
|
Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: unnamed location near Lake Tiberias -200 m
highest point: Mount Hermon 2,814 m
|
|
Natural resources | | petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, gypsum, hydropower
|
|
Land use(%) | | arable land: 24.8%
permanent crops: 4.47%
other: 70.73% (2005)
|
|
Irrigated land(sq km) | | 13,330 sq km (2003)
|
|
Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 46.1 cu km (1997)
|
|
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 19.95 cu km/yr (3%/2%/95%)
per capita: 1,048 cu m/yr (2000)
|
|
Natural hazards | | dust storms, sandstorms
|
|
Environment - current issues | | deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution from raw sewage and petroleum refining wastes; inadequate potable water
|
|
Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification
|
|
Geography - note | | there are 42 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights (August 2005 est.)
|
|
Population | | 20,178,485
note: in addition, about 40,000 people live in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights - 20,000 Arabs (18,000 Druze and 2,000 Alawites) and about 20,000 Israeli settlers (July 2009 est.)
|
|
Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 35.9% (male 3,724,770/female 3,510,182)
15-64 years: 60.8% (male 6,285,866/female 5,980,029)
65 years and over: 3.4% (male 318,646/female 358,992) (2009 est.)
|
|
Median age(years) | | total: 21.7 years
male: 21.6 years
female: 21.9 years (2009 est.)
|
|
Population growth rate(%) | | 2.129% (2009 est.)
|
|
Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 25.9 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
|
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 4.61 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
|
|
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | NA (2009 est.)
|
|
Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 54% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 3.1% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
|
|
Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female
total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
|
|
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 25.87 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 26.13 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 25.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
|
|
Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 71.19 years
male: 69.8 years
female: 72.68 years (2009 est.)
|
|
Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 3.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
|
|
Nationality | | noun: Syrian(s)
adjective: Syrian
|
|
Ethnic groups(%) | | Arab 90.3%, Kurds, Armenians, and other 9.7%
|
|
Religions(%) | | Sunni Muslim 74%, other Muslim (includes Alawite, Druze) 16%, Christian (various denominations) 10%, Jewish (tiny communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo)
|
|
Languages(%) | | Arabic (official); Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian widely understood; French, English somewhat understood
|
|
Country name | | conventional long form: Syrian Arab Republic
conventional short form: Syria
local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah
local short form: Suriyah
former: United Arab Republic (with Egypt)
|
|
Government type | | republic under an authoritarian military-dominated regime
|
|
Capital | | name: Damascus
geographic coordinates: 33 30 N, 36 18 E
time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins 1 April; ends 30 September
|
|
Administrative divisions | | 14 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Hasakah, Al Ladhiqiyah (Latakia), Al Qunaytirah, Ar Raqqah, As Suwayda', Dar'a, Dayr az Zawr, Dimashq, Halab, Hamah, Hims, Idlib, Rif Dimashq (Damascus), Tartus
|
|
Constitution | | 13-Mar-73
|
|
Legal system | | based on a combination of French and Ottoman civil law; Islamic law is used in the family court system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
|
|
Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
|
|
Executive branch | | chief of state: President Bashar al-ASAD (since 17 July 2000); Vice President Farouk al-SHARA (since 11 February 2006) oversees foreign policy; Vice President Najah al-ATTAR (since 23 March 2006) oversees cultural policy
head of government: Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-UTRI (since 10 September 2003); Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs Abdallah al-DARDARI (since 14 June 2005)
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
elections: president approved by popular referendum for a second seven-year term (no term limits); referendum last held on 27 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2014); the president appoints the vice presidents, prime minister, and deputy prime ministers
election results: Bashar al-ASAD approved as president; percent of vote - Bashar al-ASAD 97.6%
|
|
Legislative branch | | unicameral People's Council or Majlis al-Shaab (250 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held on 22-23 April 2007 (next to be held in 2011)
election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NPF 172, independents 78
|
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Judicial branch | | Supreme Judicial Council (appoints and dismisses judges; headed by the president); national level - Supreme Constitutional Court (adjudicates electoral disputes and rules on constitutionality of laws and decrees; justices appointed for four-year terms by the president); Court of Cassation; Appeals Courts (Appeals Courts represent an intermediate level between the Court of Cassation and local level courts); local level - Magistrate Courts; Courts of First Instance; Juvenile Courts; Customs Courts; specialized courts - Economic Security Courts (hear cases related to economic crimes); Supreme State Security Court (hear cases related to national security); Personal Status Courts (religious; hear cases related to marriage and divorce)
|
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Damascus Declaration National Council [Riyad SEIF, secretary general] (a broad alliance of opposition groups and individuals including: Committee for Revival of Civil Society [Michel KILO, Riyad SEIF]; Communist Action Party [Fateh JAMOUS]; Kurdish Democratic Alliance; Kurdish Democratic Front; Liberal Nationalists' Movement; National Democratic Rally; and Syrian Human Rights Society or HRAS [Fawed FAWUZ]); National Salvation Front (alliance between former Vice President Abd al-Halim KHADDAM, the SMB, and other small opposition groups); Syrian Muslim Brotherhood or SMB [Sadr al-Din al-BAYANUNI] (operates in exile in London; endorsed the Damascus Declaration, but is not an official member)
|
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International organization participation | | ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
|
|
Flag description | | three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black, colors associated with the Arab Liberation flag; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; former flag of the United Arab Republic where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band; the current design dates to 1980
|
|
Economy - overview | | Syrian economic growth slowed in 2009 to 2.2% in real terms as the global economic crisis affected oil prices and the economies of Syria's key export partners and sources of investment. Damascus has implemented modest economic reforms in the past few years, including cutting lending interest rates, opening private banks, consolidating all of the multiple exchange rates, raising prices on some subsidized items, most notably gasoline and cement, and establishing the Damascus Stock Exchange - which is set to begin operations in 2009. In addition, President ASAD signed legislative decrees to encourage corporate ownership reform, and to allow the Central Bank to issue Treasury bills and bonds for government debt. Nevertheless, the economy remains highly controlled by the government. Long-run economic constraints include declining oil production, high unemployment and inflation, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.
|
|
GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $99.06 billion (2008 est.)
$94.26 billion (2007 est.)
$88.65 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
|
GDP (official exchange rate) | | $55.02 billion (2008 est.)
|
|
GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 5.1% (2008 est.)
6.3% (2007 est.)
5.2% (2006 est.)
|
|
GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $4,600 (2008 est.)
$4,600 (2007 est.)
$4,600 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
|
GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 18.5%
industry: 26.9%
services: 54.6% (2008 est.)
|
|
Labor force | | 5.593 million (2008 est.)
|
|
Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 19.2%
industry: 14.5%
services: 66.3% (2006 est.)
|
|
Unemployment rate(%) | | 8.6% (2008 est.)
9% (2007 est.)
|
|
Population below poverty line(%) | | 11.9% (2006 est.)
|
|
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
|
|
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 21.7% of GDP (2008 est.)
|
|
Budget | | revenues: $11.23 billion
expenditures: $12.85 billion (2008 est.)
|
|
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 15.7% (2008 est.)
12.2% (2007 est.)
|
|
Stock of money | | $73.54 billion (31 December 2008)
$15.21 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Stock of quasi money | | $73.93 billion (31 December 2008)
$12.29 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Stock of domestic credit | | $84.31 billion (31 December 2008)
$15.19 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Market value of publicly traded shares | | $NA
|
|
Economic aid - recipient | | $213 million (2008 est.)
|
|
Public debt(% of GDP) | | 25.4% of GDP (2008 est.)
32% of GDP (2004 est.)
|
|
Agriculture - products | | wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, chickpeas, olives, sugar beets; beef, mutton, eggs, poultry, milk
|
|
Industries | | petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining, cement, oil seeds crushing, car assembly
|
|
Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 2.3% (2008 est.)
|
|
Current account balance | | -$791 million (2008 est.)
$402 million (2007 est.)
|
|
Exports | | $13.97 billion (2008 est.)
$11.75 billion (2007 est.)
|
|
Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, minerals, petroleum products, fruits and vegetables, cotton fiber, textiles, clothing, meat and live animals, wheat
|
|
Exports - partners(%) | | Iraq 30.9%, Germany 9.8%, Lebanon 9.7%, Italy 6.4%, France 5.5%, Egypt 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5.1% (2008)
|
|
Imports | | $15.97 billion (2008 est.)
$12.27 billion (2007 est.)
|
|
Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and transport equipment, electric power machinery, food and livestock, metal and metal products, chemicals and chemical products, plastics, yarn, paper
|
|
Imports - partners(%) | | Saudi Arabia 11.7%, China 8.7%, Russia 6.4%, Italy 5.9%, Egypt 5.8%, UAE 5.8%, Turkey 4.3%, Iran 4.2% (2008)
|
|
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $6.765 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$6.507 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
|
Debt - external | | $7.167 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$6.633 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
|
Exchange rates | | Syrian pounds (SYP) per US dollar - 46.5281 (2008 est.), 50.0085 (2007), 51.689 (2006), 50 (2005), 48.5 (2004)
note: data for 2004-06 are the public sector rate; data for 2002-03 are the parallel market rate in 'Amman and Beirut; the official rate for repaying loans was 11.25 Syrian pounds per US dollars during 2004-06,
|
|
Currency (code) | | Syrian pound (SYP)
|
|
Telephones - main lines in use | | 3.633 million (2008)
|
|
Telephones - mobile cellular | | 7.056 million (2008)
|
|
Telephone system | | general assessment: fair system currently undergoing significant improvement and digital upgrades, including fiber-optic technology
domestic: the number of fixed-line connections has increased markedly since 2000; mobile-cellular service growing with telephone subscribership reaching 40 per 100 persons in 2008;
international: country code - 963; submarine cable connection to Egypt, Lebanon, and Cyprus; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey; participant in Medarabtel
|
|
Internet country code | | .sy
|
|
Internet users | | 3.565 million (2008)
|
|
Airports | | 104 (2009)
|
|
Pipelines(km) | | gas 2,900 km; oil 2,000 km (2008)
|
|
Roadways(km) | | total: 97,401 km
paved: 19,490 km (includes 1,103 km of expressways)
unpaved: 77,911 km (2006)
|
|
Ports and terminals | | Latakia, Tartus
|
|
Military branches | | Syrian Armed Forces: Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Navy, Syrian Arab Air and Air Defense Forces (includes Air Defense Command) (2008)
|
|
Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 18 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 30 months (18 months in the Syrian Arab Navy); women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve (2004)
|
|
Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 5,251,875
females age 16-49: 4,966,367 (2008 est.)
|
|
Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 4,360,934
females age 16-49: 4,344,895 (2009 est.)
|
|
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 213,513
female: 201,055 (2009 est.)
|
|
Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.9% of GDP (2005 est.)
|
|
Disputes - international | | Golan Heights is Israeli-occupied with the almost 1,000-strong UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) patrolling a buffer zone since 1964; lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria boundary are unclear with several sections in dispute; since 2000, Lebanon has claimed Shabaa farms in the Golan Heights; 2004 Agreement and pending demarcation settles border dispute with Jordan; approximately two million Iraqis have fled the conflict in Iraq with the majority taking refuge in Syria and Jordan
|
|
Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 1-1.4 million (Iraq); 522,100 (Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA))
IDPs: 305,000 (most displaced from Golan Heights during 1967 Arab-Israeli War) (2007)
|
|
Trafficking in persons | | current situation: Syria is a destination and transit country for women and children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor; a significant number of women and children in the large and expanding Iraqi refugee community in Syria are reportedly forced into commercial sexual exploitation by Iraqi gangs or, in some cases, their families; women from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone are recruited for work in Syria as domestic servants, but some face conditions of involuntary servitude, including long hours, non-payment of wages, withholding of passports, restrictions on movement, threats, and physical or sexual abuse
tier rating: Tier 3 - Syria again failed to report any law enforcement efforts to punish trafficking offenses in 2007; in addition, the government did not offer protection services to victims of trafficking and may have arrested, prosecuted, or deported some victims for prostitution or immigration violations; Syria has not ratified the 2000 UN TIP Protocol (2008)
|
|
Electricity - production(kWh) | | 36.5 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 57.6%
hydro: 42.4%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
|
|
Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 27.35 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
|
Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 1.4 billion kWh (2007)
|
|
Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 426,100 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 256,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 155,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 58,710 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
|
Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 2.5 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 6.04 billion cu m (2008 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 6.18 billion cu m (2008 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m
|
|
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 240.7 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | fewer than 500 (2003 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - deaths | | fewer than 200 (2003 est.)
|
|
Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 79.6%
male: 86%
female: 73.6% (2004 census)
|
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 3.9% of GDP (1999)
|
