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Syria
Index
By the summer of 1965, Hafiz began seeking to limit the
influence of the Alawis and Druzes. His own political orientation
had begun to shift toward compromise, moderation, union, and the
slowing down of socialism. In September 1965, he removed Jadid
from the post of army chief of staff, but the latter entrenched
himself in his party position as secretary general of the
Regional Command. On December 21, 1965, the National Command
dissolved the Regional Command and removed Jadid's three
supporters from the five-man presidency council.
At the same time, Hafiz dismissed the cabinet of Prime
Minister Zuayyin, who had become a regionalist. He then called on
the perennial Bitar to form a new cabinet (his fifth) and
recalled General Umran as minister of defense. On Hafiz's
authority, extensive transfers of Jadid's supporters in the army
were planned. On February 18, 1966, Aflaq condemned the Jadid
faction for "degenerating into regional separatism" and (although
he himself had assisted the process) for the military usurpation
of party and government power from the civilian leadership. Thus,
the stage was set for a confrontation between the two parts of
the Baath Party.
On February 23, 1966, Jadid, the Regional Command, and their
army units seized the government in the bloodiest of the many
coups d'etat since 1949. The general public, however, displayed
no inclination to fight for one Baathist military faction against
the other.
Hafiz, wounded in the fighting, was arrested and imprisoned;
the old National Command was denounced and expelled; and Aflaq
and Bitar were read out of the party. Later released, both took
refuge in Lebanon. One of the first acts of the Regional Command
after seizing the radio station was the announcement of the
appointment of Major General Hafiz al Assad as minister of
defense.
On March 1, 1966, a new government was formed. Jadid remained
outside the formal structure of government, directing affairs
through his position as party leader. So as not to appear as an
outright military dictatorship, the regime designated prominent
regionalist Baath civilians to office: Nureddin Atassi as
president of the republic; Yusuf Zuayyin, again as prime
minister; and Ibrahim Makhus as foreign minister. All were
physicians and representatives of the urban intellectuals. The
first two were Sunnis; Makhus, an Alawi. In the Regional Command,
the top five positions were held by Jadid, Atassi, Zuayyin,
Makhus, and Assad, in that order.
On September 8, 1966, a military countercoup attempt was led
by a Druze, Salim Hatum, a leading partner of Jadid in the
February 23 coup. Although Hatum's men actually arrested
President Atassi, the army chief of staff Major General Ahmad
Suwaydani, and Jadid himself, the attempt failed when Assad
threatened to send the air force against Hatum's forces. The
Workers' Battalions, a proletarian national guard organized by
Khalid al Jundi and influenced by the Chinese Red Guard concept,
also declared for Jadid. Agreement was reached between the
factions for an exchange of prisoners, and on the following
morning Hatum and his associates fled to Jordan. He returned to
Syria in early June 1967 to fight, he said, against Israel; he
was arrested and shot.
The traumatic defeat of the Syrians and Egyptians in the June
1967 War with Israel discredited the radical socialist regimes of
Nasser's Egypt and Baathist Syria. The Jadid faction, which
included Atassi, Zuayyin, and Makhus, was particularly hurt. The
defeat strengthened the hands of the moderates and the rightists
and was the catalyst for Assad's ascent in Syria.
In the fall of 1968, open controversy developed between
Assad, reportedly representing a moderate faction centered in the
military, and extremists of Jadid's civilian regime. Although
Jadid's power in the party remained strong, in March 1969 an
ostensible compromise was reached between Assad and Jadid. The
new government formed in May made minor concessions to broadening
the political base but represented no real change in domestic or
foreign policy. The rank order in the party's hierarchy remained
unchanged. Assad continued as minister of defense. A number of
Syrian Communists were arrested, and their leader Bakdash again
left the country.
The conflict between the Jadid civilian wing and the Assad
military wing of the party continued through 1970, and the
government, although reported to be widely unpopular, remained in
firm control of the country. From time to time different measures
bore the influence of the two factions. Party purges had
decimated the air force, which suffered from a critical pilot
shortage, and Assad succeeded in restoring to duty a number of
air force pilots who had been retired for political reasons. The
Regional Command headed by Jadid, rather than the Ministry of
Defense, retained complete control of its institutionalized
Palestine guerrilla force, As Saiqa (Thunderbolt)
(see Special and Irregular Armed Forces
, ch. 5).
In its radical revolutionary role, the regime proclaimed
support for the guerrilla movements but, while polemically
assailing Jordan and Lebanon for their efforts to control
Palestinian guerrillas in their territories, did not hesitate to
control the guerrillas in Syria. As Saiqa was not allowed to
launch operations from Syrian soil against Israel because of the
danger of reprisal, but was frequently used within Syria for
party security purposes.
In inter-Arab affairs, the Jadid and Assad factions largely
negated one another. Syria remained at odds with most Arab
states, especially Jordan, Lebanon, and Iraq.
In September 1970, the Jordanian army launched attacks on PLO
camps and on Palestinian refugee camps that were under the
control of PLO units; most were in the vicinity of Amman.
Jordan's King Hussein ordered the assaults in response to efforts
by the PLO to implement its avowed policy of deposing Hussein and
other Arab monarchs. The hostilities in Jordan--which became
known by the PLO and its supporters as Black September--had a
profound impact on the Arab world and particularly on the
government in Syria.
During the civil war that lasted 10 days, Syria sent some 200
tanks (nominally of the Palestine Liberation Army--PLA) to aid
the PLO forces. Iraq, Syria's Baathist rival, had a force of
about 12,000 men stationed near Az Zarqa northeast of Amman;
these troops did not participate in the fighting and withdrew to
Iraq a few days later. The United States dispatched the Sixth
Fleet to the eastern Mediterranean, and the Israeli air force
openly assumed a posture of military preparedness. Most
important, the Syrian air force refused to provide air cover to
the Syrian tank brigade, which came under severe attacks first by
the Jordanian air force and then by the Jordanian army. On
September 23 and 24, the Syrian expeditionary force withdrew from
the battle zone and returned to Syria.
Syria's military fiasco in Jordan reflected political
disagreement within the ruling Baath leadership. The Jadid
faction argued for full support of and participation with the PLO
in Jordan; Assad and his associates opposed such action. For a
variety of reasons, not the least of which was fear of a
devastating Israeli reprisal, Assad refused to commit his air
force to support the tank units. Jadid and his supporters were
militarily and politically humiliated.
The Baath Party's tenth congress, held in Damascus, lasted
two weeks and ended November 12, 1970. This conference, labeled
an extraordinary session of the National Command, underscored
Jadid's continuing control of the party apparatus. It adopted
resolutions reaffirming the government's position in internal and
foreign affairs and censuring Assad and his chief of staff Major
General Mustafa Tlas on the grounds of improper military
influence in the government.
On November 13, 1970, army units arrested Jadid, Atassi, and
Zuayyin along with several others and seized the centers of
communication without effective opposition. Although a few minor
demonstrations occurred, the overthrow was virtually bloodless.
Jadid was detained under guard; Atassi, in house arrest. The
others were soon released.
On November 16, the Regional Command of the Baath Party
issued a statement saying that the change that had occurred was a
transfer of power within the party showing that the party's
progressive rank and file were stronger than the misdirected
forces of dictators. A new party congress was to be convened to
reorganize the party; a national front government was to be
organized under revised Baathist leadership; and a people's
council, or legislature, was to be formed within three months.
Continued support for the Palestinian cause was affirmed.
On November 19, 1970, the Regional Command announced the
designation of Ahmad al Khatib, a respected but hitherto little-
known politician, as acting chief of state and of Lieutenant
General Assad as prime minister and minister of defense. Assad
then formed a 26-man cabinet, consisting of about one-half Assad
Baathists and the balance scattered among Socialists, Nasserists,
Independents, and Communists. This cabinet met for the first time
on November 23, 1970. In a press interview Assad claimed that the
change in government had been neither a coup nor the result of
political conflict along lines of military-civilian division, but
a natural development in the party's revolutionary movement,
often referred to as the "Correction Movement."
Data as of April 1987
- Syria-Radical Political Influence
- Syria-Syrian-Palestinian Tensions
- Syria-Regional Foreign Relations FOREIGN POLICY
- Syria-ECONOMY
- Syria-PERIOD OF ECONOMIC RETRENCHMENT, 1986-90
- Syria-Air Force
- Syria-Republican Guard
- Syria-Vital Statistics
- Syria-THE PEOPLES
- Syria-STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY
- Syria-Concepts of Nationalism, Unity, and the Arab Nation
- Syria-Coups and Countercoups, 1961-70
- Syria-BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
- Syria-Chapter 1 - Historical Setting
- Syria-Electric Power
- Syria-Shia
- Syria-Villages
- Syria-The Palestinians
- Syria-NATIONAL SECURITY
- Syria-Uniforms and Rank Insignia
- Syria-Industrial Development Policy
- Syria-THE REGULAR ARMED FORCES
- Syria-Neo-Baath Dominance, 1963-66
- Syria-Exports
- Syria-Tribes
- Syria-Chapter 2 - The Society and Its Environment
- Syria-Yazidis
- Syria-The Baath Redirections of 1966 and 1970
- Syria-THE FRENCH MANDATE
- Syria-Syrian-Soviet Relations
- Syria-Ottoman Empire
- Syria-Cropping and Production
- Syria-Imports
- Syria-Density, Distribution, and Settlement
- Syria-Iran and Iraq
- Syria-Chapter 5 - National Security
- Syria-Size, Equipment, Command Structure and Organization
- Syria-Ideologically Based Opposition Movements ANTI-REGIME OPPOSITION MOVEMENTS
- Syria-The Power Elite
- Syria-The Syrian Communist Party
- Syria-INDUSTRY
- Syria-Energy and Natural Resources
- Syria-BANKING AND MONETARY POLICY
- Syria-Israel
- Syria-Syria
- Syria-EDUCATION
- Syria-Role of Government in Agriculture
- Syria-Arabs
- Syria-Preface
- Syria-Shishakli Dictatorship
- Syria-ANCIENT SYRIA
- Syria-Syrian-Turkish Tensions
- Syria-Ismailis
- Syria-Navy
- Syria-Introduction
- Syria-Army
- Syria-Ethnic and Religious Opposition Movements
- Syria-Foreword
- Syria-TRANSPORTATION, TELECOMMUNICATIONS, AND CONSTRUCTION
- Syria-Military Training
- Syria-OTHER MINORITIES
- Syria-Special and Irregular Armed Forces
- Syria-Background
- Syria-Historical Background SYRIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST CONFLICT
- Syria-AGRICULTURE
- Syria-WORLD WAR I AND ARAB NATIONALISM
- Syria-THE ASSAD ERA
- Syria-The President and the Cabinet GOVERNMENT
- Syria-Manpower, Recruitment, and Conscription
- Syria-Islam
- Syria-Lebanon
- Syria-GEOGRAPHY
- Syria-SOCIETY
- Syria-The Judiciary
- Syria
- Syria-Christianity
- Syria
- Syria-Agricultural Potential
- Syria-United Arab Republic
- Syria-FOREIGN TRADE
- Syria-Attitudes Toward Politics, Political Parties, and Government POLITICAL ORIENTATIONS
- Syria-Land Use
- Syria-LABOR FORCE
- Syria-Syrian-Iraqi Hostility
- Syria-Syrian-Jordanian Tensions
- Syria-Expenditures
- Syria -Country Profile
- Syria-AFTER INDEPENDENCE
- Syria-Acknowledgments
- Syria-CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
- Syria-WORLD WAR II AND INDEPENDENCE
- Syria
- Syria
- Syria-Budget
- Syria-Chapter 3 - The Economy
- Syria-GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY
- Syria-CIVIL POLICE AND INTERNAL SECURITY APPARATUS
- Syria-Water Resources
- Syria
- Syria-Land, Water, and Climate
- Syria-Towns
- Syria-Kurds
- Syria-CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
- Syria-Druzes
- Syria-Umayyad Caliphate
- Syria-RELIGIOUS LIFE
- Syria-Local Administration
- Syria-THE ARMED FORCES AND SOCIETY
- Syria-Population
- Syria-GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
- Syria-Chapter 4 - Government and Politics
- Syria-THE INDIVIDUAL, THE FAMILY, AND THE SEXES
- Syria-Conditions of Service, Morale, and Military Justice
- Syria-Others
- Syria-Animal Products
- Syria-The Baath Party Apparatus
- Syria-ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
- Syria
- Syria-Development of the Syrian Military
- Syria-Alawis
- Syria-MUSLIM EMPIRES
- Syria-GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION
- Syria
- Syria-The People's Council
- Syria-Development Planning
- Syria-SPONSORSHIP OF TERRORISM
- Syria-Syrian-United States Relations
- Syria-Syria and the Lebanese Crisis, 1975-87
- Syria-Succeeding Caliphates and Kingdoms
- Syria-Armenians
- Syria
- Syria-Jordan
- Syria-Post-1982 Political Developments
- Syria-POLITICAL DYNAMICS
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Background | | Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence in 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, and experienced a series of military coups during its first decades. Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority Alawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops - stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role - were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah. In May 2007 Bashar al-ASAD was elected to his second term as President.
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Location | | Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Lebanon and Turkey
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Area(sq km) | | total: 185,180 sq km
land: 183,630 sq km
water: 1,550 sq km
note: includes 1,295 sq km of Israeli-occupied territory
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Geographic coordinates | | 35 00 N, 38 00 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 2,253 km
border countries: Iraq 605 km, Israel 76 km, Jordan 375 km, Lebanon 375 km, Turkey 822 km
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Coastline(km) | | 193 km
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Climate | | mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically in Damascus
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: unnamed location near Lake Tiberias -200 m
highest point: Mount Hermon 2,814 m
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Natural resources | | petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, gypsum, hydropower
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Land use(%) | | arable land: 24.8%
permanent crops: 4.47%
other: 70.73% (2005)
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Irrigated land(sq km) | | 13,330 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 46.1 cu km (1997)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 19.95 cu km/yr (3%/2%/95%)
per capita: 1,048 cu m/yr (2000)
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Natural hazards | | dust storms, sandstorms
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Environment - current issues | | deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution from raw sewage and petroleum refining wastes; inadequate potable water
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification
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Geography - note | | there are 42 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights (August 2005 est.)
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Population | | 20,178,485
note: in addition, about 40,000 people live in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights - 20,000 Arabs (18,000 Druze and 2,000 Alawites) and about 20,000 Israeli settlers (July 2009 est.)
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 35.9% (male 3,724,770/female 3,510,182)
15-64 years: 60.8% (male 6,285,866/female 5,980,029)
65 years and over: 3.4% (male 318,646/female 358,992) (2009 est.)
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Median age(years) | | total: 21.7 years
male: 21.6 years
female: 21.9 years (2009 est.)
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Population growth rate(%) | | 2.129% (2009 est.)
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Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 25.9 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 4.61 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
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Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | NA (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 54% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 3.1% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female
total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 25.87 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 26.13 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 25.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 71.19 years
male: 69.8 years
female: 72.68 years (2009 est.)
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Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 3.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Syrian(s)
adjective: Syrian
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Arab 90.3%, Kurds, Armenians, and other 9.7%
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Religions(%) | | Sunni Muslim 74%, other Muslim (includes Alawite, Druze) 16%, Christian (various denominations) 10%, Jewish (tiny communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo)
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Languages(%) | | Arabic (official); Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian widely understood; French, English somewhat understood
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Country name | | conventional long form: Syrian Arab Republic
conventional short form: Syria
local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah
local short form: Suriyah
former: United Arab Republic (with Egypt)
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Government type | | republic under an authoritarian military-dominated regime
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Capital | | name: Damascus
geographic coordinates: 33 30 N, 36 18 E
time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins 1 April; ends 30 September
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Administrative divisions | | 14 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Hasakah, Al Ladhiqiyah (Latakia), Al Qunaytirah, Ar Raqqah, As Suwayda', Dar'a, Dayr az Zawr, Dimashq, Halab, Hamah, Hims, Idlib, Rif Dimashq (Damascus), Tartus
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Constitution | | 13-Mar-73
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Legal system | | based on a combination of French and Ottoman civil law; Islamic law is used in the family court system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
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Executive branch | | chief of state: President Bashar al-ASAD (since 17 July 2000); Vice President Farouk al-SHARA (since 11 February 2006) oversees foreign policy; Vice President Najah al-ATTAR (since 23 March 2006) oversees cultural policy
head of government: Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-UTRI (since 10 September 2003); Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs Abdallah al-DARDARI (since 14 June 2005)
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
elections: president approved by popular referendum for a second seven-year term (no term limits); referendum last held on 27 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2014); the president appoints the vice presidents, prime minister, and deputy prime ministers
election results: Bashar al-ASAD approved as president; percent of vote - Bashar al-ASAD 97.6%
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Legislative branch | | unicameral People's Council or Majlis al-Shaab (250 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held on 22-23 April 2007 (next to be held in 2011)
election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NPF 172, independents 78
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Judicial branch | | Supreme Judicial Council (appoints and dismisses judges; headed by the president); national level - Supreme Constitutional Court (adjudicates electoral disputes and rules on constitutionality of laws and decrees; justices appointed for four-year terms by the president); Court of Cassation; Appeals Courts (Appeals Courts represent an intermediate level between the Court of Cassation and local level courts); local level - Magistrate Courts; Courts of First Instance; Juvenile Courts; Customs Courts; specialized courts - Economic Security Courts (hear cases related to economic crimes); Supreme State Security Court (hear cases related to national security); Personal Status Courts (religious; hear cases related to marriage and divorce)
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Damascus Declaration National Council [Riyad SEIF, secretary general] (a broad alliance of opposition groups and individuals including: Committee for Revival of Civil Society [Michel KILO, Riyad SEIF]; Communist Action Party [Fateh JAMOUS]; Kurdish Democratic Alliance; Kurdish Democratic Front; Liberal Nationalists' Movement; National Democratic Rally; and Syrian Human Rights Society or HRAS [Fawed FAWUZ]); National Salvation Front (alliance between former Vice President Abd al-Halim KHADDAM, the SMB, and other small opposition groups); Syrian Muslim Brotherhood or SMB [Sadr al-Din al-BAYANUNI] (operates in exile in London; endorsed the Damascus Declaration, but is not an official member)
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International organization participation | | ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
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Flag description | | three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black, colors associated with the Arab Liberation flag; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; former flag of the United Arab Republic where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band; the current design dates to 1980
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Economy - overview | | Syrian economic growth slowed in 2009 to 2.2% in real terms as the global economic crisis affected oil prices and the economies of Syria's key export partners and sources of investment. Damascus has implemented modest economic reforms in the past few years, including cutting lending interest rates, opening private banks, consolidating all of the multiple exchange rates, raising prices on some subsidized items, most notably gasoline and cement, and establishing the Damascus Stock Exchange - which is set to begin operations in 2009. In addition, President ASAD signed legislative decrees to encourage corporate ownership reform, and to allow the Central Bank to issue Treasury bills and bonds for government debt. Nevertheless, the economy remains highly controlled by the government. Long-run economic constraints include declining oil production, high unemployment and inflation, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $99.06 billion (2008 est.)
$94.26 billion (2007 est.)
$88.65 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate) | | $55.02 billion (2008 est.)
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GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 5.1% (2008 est.)
6.3% (2007 est.)
5.2% (2006 est.)
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GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $4,600 (2008 est.)
$4,600 (2007 est.)
$4,600 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 18.5%
industry: 26.9%
services: 54.6% (2008 est.)
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Labor force | | 5.593 million (2008 est.)
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Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 19.2%
industry: 14.5%
services: 66.3% (2006 est.)
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Unemployment rate(%) | | 8.6% (2008 est.)
9% (2007 est.)
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Population below poverty line(%) | | 11.9% (2006 est.)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 21.7% of GDP (2008 est.)
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Budget | | revenues: $11.23 billion
expenditures: $12.85 billion (2008 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 15.7% (2008 est.)
12.2% (2007 est.)
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Stock of money | | $73.54 billion (31 December 2008)
$15.21 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money | | $73.93 billion (31 December 2008)
$12.29 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of domestic credit | | $84.31 billion (31 December 2008)
$15.19 billion (31 December 2007)
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Market value of publicly traded shares | | $NA
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Economic aid - recipient | | $213 million (2008 est.)
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Public debt(% of GDP) | | 25.4% of GDP (2008 est.)
32% of GDP (2004 est.)
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Agriculture - products | | wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, chickpeas, olives, sugar beets; beef, mutton, eggs, poultry, milk
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Industries | | petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining, cement, oil seeds crushing, car assembly
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Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 2.3% (2008 est.)
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Current account balance | | -$791 million (2008 est.)
$402 million (2007 est.)
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Exports | | $13.97 billion (2008 est.)
$11.75 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, minerals, petroleum products, fruits and vegetables, cotton fiber, textiles, clothing, meat and live animals, wheat
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Exports - partners(%) | | Iraq 30.9%, Germany 9.8%, Lebanon 9.7%, Italy 6.4%, France 5.5%, Egypt 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5.1% (2008)
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Imports | | $15.97 billion (2008 est.)
$12.27 billion (2007 est.)
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Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and transport equipment, electric power machinery, food and livestock, metal and metal products, chemicals and chemical products, plastics, yarn, paper
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Imports - partners(%) | | Saudi Arabia 11.7%, China 8.7%, Russia 6.4%, Italy 5.9%, Egypt 5.8%, UAE 5.8%, Turkey 4.3%, Iran 4.2% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $6.765 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$6.507 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Debt - external | | $7.167 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$6.633 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Exchange rates | | Syrian pounds (SYP) per US dollar - 46.5281 (2008 est.), 50.0085 (2007), 51.689 (2006), 50 (2005), 48.5 (2004)
note: data for 2004-06 are the public sector rate; data for 2002-03 are the parallel market rate in 'Amman and Beirut; the official rate for repaying loans was 11.25 Syrian pounds per US dollars during 2004-06,
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Currency (code) | | Syrian pound (SYP)
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 3.633 million (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 7.056 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: fair system currently undergoing significant improvement and digital upgrades, including fiber-optic technology
domestic: the number of fixed-line connections has increased markedly since 2000; mobile-cellular service growing with telephone subscribership reaching 40 per 100 persons in 2008;
international: country code - 963; submarine cable connection to Egypt, Lebanon, and Cyprus; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey; participant in Medarabtel
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Internet country code | | .sy
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Internet users | | 3.565 million (2008)
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Airports | | 104 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | gas 2,900 km; oil 2,000 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 97,401 km
paved: 19,490 km (includes 1,103 km of expressways)
unpaved: 77,911 km (2006)
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Ports and terminals | | Latakia, Tartus
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Military branches | | Syrian Armed Forces: Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Navy, Syrian Arab Air and Air Defense Forces (includes Air Defense Command) (2008)
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Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 18 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 30 months (18 months in the Syrian Arab Navy); women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve (2004)
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Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 5,251,875
females age 16-49: 4,966,367 (2008 est.)
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Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 4,360,934
females age 16-49: 4,344,895 (2009 est.)
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Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 213,513
female: 201,055 (2009 est.)
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Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.9% of GDP (2005 est.)
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Disputes - international | | Golan Heights is Israeli-occupied with the almost 1,000-strong UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) patrolling a buffer zone since 1964; lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria boundary are unclear with several sections in dispute; since 2000, Lebanon has claimed Shabaa farms in the Golan Heights; 2004 Agreement and pending demarcation settles border dispute with Jordan; approximately two million Iraqis have fled the conflict in Iraq with the majority taking refuge in Syria and Jordan
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Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 1-1.4 million (Iraq); 522,100 (Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA))
IDPs: 305,000 (most displaced from Golan Heights during 1967 Arab-Israeli War) (2007)
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Trafficking in persons | | current situation: Syria is a destination and transit country for women and children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor; a significant number of women and children in the large and expanding Iraqi refugee community in Syria are reportedly forced into commercial sexual exploitation by Iraqi gangs or, in some cases, their families; women from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone are recruited for work in Syria as domestic servants, but some face conditions of involuntary servitude, including long hours, non-payment of wages, withholding of passports, restrictions on movement, threats, and physical or sexual abuse
tier rating: Tier 3 - Syria again failed to report any law enforcement efforts to punish trafficking offenses in 2007; in addition, the government did not offer protection services to victims of trafficking and may have arrested, prosecuted, or deported some victims for prostitution or immigration violations; Syria has not ratified the 2000 UN TIP Protocol (2008)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 36.5 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 57.6%
hydro: 42.4%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
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Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 27.35 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
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Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 1.4 billion kWh (2007)
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Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 426,100 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 256,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 155,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 58,710 bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 2.5 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
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Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 6.04 billion cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 6.18 billion cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m
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Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 240.7 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | fewer than 500 (2003 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - deaths | | fewer than 200 (2003 est.)
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 79.6%
male: 86%
female: 73.6% (2004 census)
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Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 3.9% of GDP (1999)
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