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Syria Index

As of 1987, Syria had successfully vetoed its neighbors' peace initiatives and constructed a credible unilateral military deterrent to Israel. It had also outlined its position on potential multilateral negotiated solutions to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Syria had accepted United Nations Security Council Resolution 338 of October 22, 1973, and indicated that such acceptace implied acceptance of Resolution 242, which was adopted after the June 1967 War. However, in 1986 Damascus suggested a willingness to negotiate only a state of "nonbelligerency" with Israel, not a comprehensive peace treaty. Whereas Resolution 242 specifically requires Arab recognition of Israel in return for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories, Resolution 338 more generally calls for negotiations between the parties concerned "under appropriate auspices aimed at establishing a just and durable peace in the Middle East." Although Resolution 338 does, in fact, call on the parties to start implementation of Resolution 242, it does not spell out in its text Arab recognition of Israel's right to exist. Although the distinction appears to be semantic, Syria's refusal to endorse Resolution 242 without reservation remained a block to Syrian participation in Middle East peace negotiations. Syria has indicated that it would accept Resolution 242 only if Israel first withdrew from occupied Arab territory and guaranteed Palestinian rights. At the same time, some Syrian propagandists have maintained the more intransigent definition of the entire state of Israel, rather than the areas seized by Israel in the June 1967 War only, as occupied Arab territory. When the Israeli Knesset voted in December 1981 to permanently annex the Golan Heights, Syria perceived the action as a renunciation of Resolution 242 and the "land for peace" formula for resolution of the Middle East conflict. In 1987 Syria viewed Resolution 242 as a virtually obsolete framework for a settlement.

Instead, Syria advocated the implementation of the Fez Resolutions that were sponsored by Saudi Arabia at the Arab Summit at Fez, Morocco, in 1982. The Fez Resolutions demand settlement of the Arab-Israeli dispute at an international conference to be attended by representatives of all Arab governments, Israel, the PLO, and both superpowers.

Although Syria wants involvement in such diplomatic initiatives, it has increasingly less faith that a negotiated, peaceful resolution of the Middle East conflict will fulfill its demands. Accordingly, Syria has come to rely more heavily on the hope that its military will ultimately secure its objectives or, at the least, act as a credible deterrent to future Israeli aggression. The Syrian-Israeli combat in Lebanon in 1982 increased Syrian confidence in confronting Israel on the battlefield. Although the Syrian armed forces lost men and military matériel, they performed well in several crucial engagements (see Syria and the Lebanese Crisis, 1975-87 , ch. 5).

Throughout 1985 and 1986, Syria and Israel engaged in brinkmanship and saber rattling, as Syria brandished its new military strength. For example, Syria deployed some of the troops it had withdrawn from Lebanon to the Golan Heights. Then, on November 19, 1985, Israel shot down two Syrian MiG-23 jets inside Syrian airspace. In December Syria retaliated by deploying mobile air defense missiles to Lebanon. Although the missiles posed an identical tactical threat to Israeli reconnaissance flights over Lebanon whether they were stationed in Syria or just across the border, Israel regarded the move as a challenge to a longstanding tacit understanding that such missiles, if located in Lebanon, would be subject to Israeli attack. Syria withdrew the missiles within several weeks after the United States interceded and mediated the dispute. On February 4, 1986, Israel intercepted and forced down a Libyan executive jet, enroute from Tripoli to Damascus, which was carrying Baath Party assistant secretary general Abdallah al Ahmar and other senior Syrian politicians. Israel had ostensibly been searching for Palestinian terrorists, but Syria viewed the interception as a deliberate provocation and an act of air piracy. Finally, in May 1986, it was revealed that Syria had built revetments and entrenched fortifications in Lebanon that faced Israel. Although the construction was defensive, Israel viewed it as enhancing Syria's potentially offensive position on the Golan Heights.

To underscore Syria's increasing belligerence, in an important speech delivered to the People's Council in February 1986, Assad departed from his usually calm demeanor by declaring that Syria would work to put the Golan Heights "in the middle of Syria and not on its borders." Assad was engaging in hyperbole and exaggerating Syria's true intentions. Nevertheless, in 1987 most Syrian and Israeli officials believed that, because of the two countries' irreconcilable conflicts, the outbreak of war was inevitable in the future; some felt it to be in the distant future, while a minority, cognizant of the escalation of tensions in 1985 and 1986, believed it to be imminent.

Data as of April 1987

Background		Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence in 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, and experienced a series of military coups during its first decades. Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority Alawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops - stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role - were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah. In May 2007 Bashar al-ASAD was elected to his second term as President.
Location		Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Lebanon and Turkey
Area(sq km)		total: 185,180 sq km land: 183,630 sq km water: 1,550 sq km note: includes 1,295 sq km of Israeli-occupied territory
Geographic coordinates		35 00 N, 38 00 E
Land boundaries(km)		total: 2,253 km border countries: Iraq 605 km, Israel 76 km, Jordan 375 km, Lebanon 375 km, Turkey 822 km
Coastline(km)		193 km
Climate		mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically in Damascus
Elevation extremes(m)		lowest point: unnamed location near Lake Tiberias -200 m highest point: Mount Hermon 2,814 m
Natural resources		petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, gypsum, hydropower
Land use(%)		arable land: 24.8% permanent crops: 4.47% other: 70.73% (2005)
Irrigated land(sq km)		13,330 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources(cu km)		46.1 cu km (1997)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)		total: 19.95 cu km/yr (3%/2%/95%) per capita: 1,048 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards		dust storms, sandstorms
Environment - current issues		deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution from raw sewage and petroleum refining wastes; inadequate potable water
Environment - international agreements		party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification
Geography - note		there are 42 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights (August 2005 est.)
Population		20,178,485 note: in addition, about 40,000 people live in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights - 20,000 Arabs (18,000 Druze and 2,000 Alawites) and about 20,000 Israeli settlers (July 2009 est.)
Age structure(%)		0-14 years: 35.9% (male 3,724,770/female 3,510,182) 15-64 years: 60.8% (male 6,285,866/female 5,980,029) 65 years and over: 3.4% (male 318,646/female 358,992) (2009 est.)
Median age(years)		total: 21.7 years male: 21.6 years female: 21.9 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate(%)		2.129% (2009 est.)
Birth rate(births/1,000 population)		25.9 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population)		4.61 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population)		NA (2009 est.)
Urbanization(%)		urban population: 54% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 3.1% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio(male(s)/female)		at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births)		total: 25.87 deaths/1,000 live births male: 26.13 deaths/1,000 live births female: 25.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth(years)		total population: 71.19 years male: 69.8 years female: 72.68 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate(children born/woman)		3.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
Nationality		noun: Syrian(s) adjective: Syrian
Ethnic groups(%)		Arab 90.3%, Kurds, Armenians, and other 9.7%
Religions(%)		Sunni Muslim 74%, other Muslim (includes Alawite, Druze) 16%, Christian (various denominations) 10%, Jewish (tiny communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo)
Languages(%)		Arabic (official); Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian widely understood; French, English somewhat understood
Country name		conventional long form: Syrian Arab Republic conventional short form: Syria local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah local short form: Suriyah former: United Arab Republic (with Egypt)
Government type		republic under an authoritarian military-dominated regime
Capital		name: Damascus geographic coordinates: 33 30 N, 36 18 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins 1 April; ends 30 September
Administrative divisions		14 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Hasakah, Al Ladhiqiyah (Latakia), Al Qunaytirah, Ar Raqqah, As Suwayda', Dar'a, Dayr az Zawr, Dimashq, Halab, Hamah, Hims, Idlib, Rif Dimashq (Damascus), Tartus
Constitution		13-Mar-73
Legal system		based on a combination of French and Ottoman civil law; Islamic law is used in the family court system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage		18 years of age; universal
Executive branch		chief of state: President Bashar al-ASAD (since 17 July 2000); Vice President Farouk al-SHARA (since 11 February 2006) oversees foreign policy; Vice President Najah al-ATTAR (since 23 March 2006) oversees cultural policy head of government: Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-UTRI (since 10 September 2003); Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs Abdallah al-DARDARI (since 14 June 2005) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections: president approved by popular referendum for a second seven-year term (no term limits); referendum last held on 27 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2014); the president appoints the vice presidents, prime minister, and deputy prime ministers election results: Bashar al-ASAD approved as president; percent of vote - Bashar al-ASAD 97.6%
Legislative branch		unicameral People's Council or Majlis al-Shaab (250 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held on 22-23 April 2007 (next to be held in 2011) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NPF 172, independents 78
Judicial branch		Supreme Judicial Council (appoints and dismisses judges; headed by the president); national level - Supreme Constitutional Court (adjudicates electoral disputes and rules on constitutionality of laws and decrees; justices appointed for four-year terms by the president); Court of Cassation; Appeals Courts (Appeals Courts represent an intermediate level between the Court of Cassation and local level courts); local level - Magistrate Courts; Courts of First Instance; Juvenile Courts; Customs Courts; specialized courts - Economic Security Courts (hear cases related to economic crimes); Supreme State Security Court (hear cases related to national security); Personal Status Courts (religious; hear cases related to marriage and divorce)
Political pressure groups and leaders		Damascus Declaration National Council [Riyad SEIF, secretary general] (a broad alliance of opposition groups and individuals including: Committee for Revival of Civil Society [Michel KILO, Riyad SEIF]; Communist Action Party [Fateh JAMOUS]; Kurdish Democratic Alliance; Kurdish Democratic Front; Liberal Nationalists' Movement; National Democratic Rally; and Syrian Human Rights Society or HRAS [Fawed FAWUZ]); National Salvation Front (alliance between former Vice President Abd al-Halim KHADDAM, the SMB, and other small opposition groups); Syrian Muslim Brotherhood or SMB [Sadr al-Din al-BAYANUNI] (operates in exile in London; endorsed the Damascus Declaration, but is not an official member)
International organization participation		ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
Flag description		three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black, colors associated with the Arab Liberation flag; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; former flag of the United Arab Republic where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band; the current design dates to 1980
Economy - overview		Syrian economic growth slowed in 2009 to 2.2% in real terms as the global economic crisis affected oil prices and the economies of Syria's key export partners and sources of investment. Damascus has implemented modest economic reforms in the past few years, including cutting lending interest rates, opening private banks, consolidating all of the multiple exchange rates, raising prices on some subsidized items, most notably gasoline and cement, and establishing the Damascus Stock Exchange - which is set to begin operations in 2009. In addition, President ASAD signed legislative decrees to encourage corporate ownership reform, and to allow the Central Bank to issue Treasury bills and bonds for government debt. Nevertheless, the economy remains highly controlled by the government. Long-run economic constraints include declining oil production, high unemployment and inflation, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.
GDP (purchasing power parity)		$99.06 billion (2008 est.) $94.26 billion (2007 est.) $88.65 billion (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate)		$55.02 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate(%)		5.1% (2008 est.) 6.3% (2007 est.) 5.2% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP)		$4,600 (2008 est.) $4,600 (2007 est.) $4,600 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector(%)		agriculture: 18.5% industry: 26.9% services: 54.6% (2008 est.)
Labor force		5.593 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation(%)		agriculture: 19.2% industry: 14.5% services: 66.3% (2006 est.)
Unemployment rate(%)		8.6% (2008 est.) 9% (2007 est.)
Population below poverty line(%)		11.9% (2006 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%)		lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP)		21.7% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget		revenues: $11.23 billion expenditures: $12.85 billion (2008 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%)		15.7% (2008 est.) 12.2% (2007 est.)
Stock of money		$73.54 billion (31 December 2008) $15.21 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi money		$73.93 billion (31 December 2008) $12.29 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit		$84.31 billion (31 December 2008) $15.19 billion (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares		$NA
Economic aid - recipient		$213 million (2008 est.)
Public debt(% of GDP)		25.4% of GDP (2008 est.) 32% of GDP (2004 est.)
Agriculture - products		wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, chickpeas, olives, sugar beets; beef, mutton, eggs, poultry, milk
Industries		petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining, cement, oil seeds crushing, car assembly
Industrial production growth rate(%)		2.3% (2008 est.)
Current account balance		-$791 million (2008 est.) $402 million (2007 est.)
Exports		$13.97 billion (2008 est.) $11.75 billion (2007 est.)
Exports - commodities(%)		crude oil, minerals, petroleum products, fruits and vegetables, cotton fiber, textiles, clothing, meat and live animals, wheat
Exports - partners(%)		Iraq 30.9%, Germany 9.8%, Lebanon 9.7%, Italy 6.4%, France 5.5%, Egypt 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5.1% (2008)
Imports		$15.97 billion (2008 est.) $12.27 billion (2007 est.)
Imports - commodities(%)		machinery and transport equipment, electric power machinery, food and livestock, metal and metal products, chemicals and chemical products, plastics, yarn, paper
Imports - partners(%)		Saudi Arabia 11.7%, China 8.7%, Russia 6.4%, Italy 5.9%, Egypt 5.8%, UAE 5.8%, Turkey 4.3%, Iran 4.2% (2008)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold		$6.765 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $6.507 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Debt - external		$7.167 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $6.633 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Exchange rates		Syrian pounds (SYP) per US dollar - 46.5281 (2008 est.), 50.0085 (2007), 51.689 (2006), 50 (2005), 48.5 (2004) note: data for 2004-06 are the public sector rate; data for 2002-03 are the parallel market rate in 'Amman and Beirut; the official rate for repaying loans was 11.25 Syrian pounds per US dollars during 2004-06,
Currency (code)		Syrian pound (SYP)
Telephones - main lines in use		3.633 million (2008)
Telephones - mobile cellular		7.056 million (2008)
Telephone system		general assessment: fair system currently undergoing significant improvement and digital upgrades, including fiber-optic technology domestic: the number of fixed-line connections has increased markedly since 2000; mobile-cellular service growing with telephone subscribership reaching 40 per 100 persons in 2008; international: country code - 963; submarine cable connection to Egypt, Lebanon, and Cyprus; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey; participant in Medarabtel
Internet country code		.sy
Internet users		3.565 million (2008)
Airports		104 (2009)
Pipelines(km)		gas 2,900 km; oil 2,000 km (2008)
Roadways(km)		total: 97,401 km paved: 19,490 km (includes 1,103 km of expressways) unpaved: 77,911 km (2006)
Ports and terminals		Latakia, Tartus
Military branches		Syrian Armed Forces: Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Navy, Syrian Arab Air and Air Defense Forces (includes Air Defense Command) (2008)
Military service age and obligation(years of age)		18 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 30 months (18 months in the Syrian Arab Navy); women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve (2004)
Manpower available for military service		males age 16-49: 5,251,875 females age 16-49: 4,966,367 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service		males age 16-49: 4,360,934 females age 16-49: 4,344,895 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually		male: 213,513 female: 201,055 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures(% of GDP)		5.9% of GDP (2005 est.)
Disputes - international		Golan Heights is Israeli-occupied with the almost 1,000-strong UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) patrolling a buffer zone since 1964; lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria boundary are unclear with several sections in dispute; since 2000, Lebanon has claimed Shabaa farms in the Golan Heights; 2004 Agreement and pending demarcation settles border dispute with Jordan; approximately two million Iraqis have fled the conflict in Iraq with the majority taking refuge in Syria and Jordan
Refugees and internally displaced persons		refugees (country of origin): 1-1.4 million (Iraq); 522,100 (Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA)) IDPs: 305,000 (most displaced from Golan Heights during 1967 Arab-Israeli War) (2007)
Trafficking in persons		current situation: Syria is a destination and transit country for women and children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor; a significant number of women and children in the large and expanding Iraqi refugee community in Syria are reportedly forced into commercial sexual exploitation by Iraqi gangs or, in some cases, their families; women from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone are recruited for work in Syria as domestic servants, but some face conditions of involuntary servitude, including long hours, non-payment of wages, withholding of passports, restrictions on movement, threats, and physical or sexual abuse tier rating: Tier 3 - Syria again failed to report any law enforcement efforts to punish trafficking offenses in 2007; in addition, the government did not offer protection services to victims of trafficking and may have arrested, prosecuted, or deported some victims for prostitution or immigration violations; Syria has not ratified the 2000 UN TIP Protocol (2008)
Electricity - production(kWh)		36.5 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - production by source(%)		fossil fuel: 57.6% hydro: 42.4% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
Electricity - consumption(kWh)		27.35 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - exports(kWh)		0 kWh (2008 est.)
Electricity - imports(kWh)		1.4 billion kWh (2007)
Oil - production(bbl/day)		426,100 bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - consumption(bbl/day)		256,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - exports(bbl/day)		155,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - imports(bbl/day)		58,710 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - proved reserves(bbl)		2.5 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
Natural gas - production(cu m)		6.04 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - consumption(cu m)		6.18 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - exports(cu m)		0 cu m
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m)		240.7 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%)		less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS		fewer than 500 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths		fewer than 200 (2003 est.)
Literacy(%)		definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 79.6% male: 86% female: 73.6% (2004 census)
Education expenditures(% of GDP)		3.9% of GDP (1999)