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Libya-Italian Rule and Arab Resistance

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For many Arabs, Turkey's surrender in Libya was a betrayal of Muslim interests to the infidels. The 1912 Treaty of Lausanne was meaningless to the beduin tribesmen who continued their war against the Italians, in some areas with the aid of Turkish troops left behind in the withdrawal. Fighting in Cyrenaica was conducted by Sanusi units under Ahmad ash Sharif, whose followers in Fezzan and southern Tripolitania prevented Italian consolidation in those areas as well. Lacking the unity imposed by the Sanusis, resistance in northern Tripolitania was isolated, and tribal rivalries made it less effective. Urban nationalists in Tripoli theorized about the possibility of establishing a Tripolitanian republic, perhaps associated with Italy, while Suleiman Baruni, a Berber and a former member of the Turkish parliament, proclaimed an independent but short-lived Berber state in the Gharyan region. For the beduins, however, unencumbered by any sense of nationhood, the purpose of the struggle against the colonial power was defending Islam and the free life they had always enjoyed in their tribal territory.

In 1914 the Sanusis counterattacked in Fezzan, quickly wiping out recent Italian gains there, and in April 1915 they inflicted heavy casualties on an Italian column at Qasr Bu Hadi in the Sirtica. Captured rifles, artillery, and munitions fueled a subsequent Sanusi strike into Tripolitania, but the success of the campaign was compromised by the traditional hostility that existed between the beduins and the nationalists.

When Italy joined the Allied Powers in 1915, the first ItaloSanusi war (1914-17) in Cyrenaica became part of the world war. Germany and Turkey sent arms and advisers to Ahmad, who aligned the Sanusis with the Central Powers with the objective of tying down Italian and British troops in North Africa. In 1916, however, Turkish officers led the Sanusis on a campaign into Egypt, where they were routed by British forces. Ahmad gave up Sanusi political and military leadership to Idris and fled to Turkey aboard a German submarine. The pro-British Idris opened negotiations with the Allies on behalf of Cyrenaica in 1917. The result was, in effect, a truce rather than a conclusive peace treaty, for neither the Italians nor the Sanusis fully surrendered their claims and control in the region. Britain and Italy recognized Idris as amir of interior Cyrenaica, with the condition that Sanusi attacks on coastal towns and into Egypt cease. Further consideration of Cyrenaica's status was deferred until after the war.

Although the victorious Allied Powers accepted Italy's sovereignty in Libya, Italian forces there at the end of World War I were still confined to the coastal enclaves, sometimes under conditions of siege. A campaign was initiated to consolidate and expand Italian-held territory in 1919, but the colonial policy pursued by the Italian government was moderate and accommodating. Steps were taken toward granting limited political rights to the people in occupied areas. The provinces of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania were treated as separate colonies, and Fezzan was organized as a military territory. The Fundamental Law approved by the Italian parliament in 1919 provided for provincial parliaments and for local advisory councils appointed by the Italian governors and district executives in the occupied areas.

The different settlements that Italy made in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, however, did illustrate graphically the dissimilarities in the situations of the two provinces as they were perceived by Italian authorities. In 1920 an accord was reached between Italy and the Sanusi leaders that confirmed Idris as amir of Cyrenaica and recognized his virtual independence in an immense area in the interior that encompassed all the principal oases. Italy provided a subsidy to the amir's government, and Sanusi shaykhs, holding seats in the Cyrenaican parliament, participated in the government of the entire province. Idris was also allowed to retain the Sanusi army, although its units were to be stationed in "mixed camps" with Italian forces. By this arrangement, the Italian government officially accepted Idris as both secular and religious leader of the Cyrenaican tribes, but in effect it did not extend his political power beyond what he already exercised as head of the Sanusi order.

Clearly, the Rome government had not formulated a coherent policy toward a country that had not been conquered and whose people were dubious about the benefits of Italian rule. But because the Italians never faced a credible, united opposition in Tripolitania, they were not under comparable pressure there to yield the concessions they had made in Cyrenaica. Tripolitania lacked the leadership and organizational structure that Idris and the Sanusi order gave to Cyrenaica. The most prominent Tripolitanian nationalist was Ramadan as Suwaythi, who had by turns cooperated with the Italians, supported the Sanusis, and eventually fought against them both. His rival, Baruni, who had acted during the war as Ottoman "governor" in Tripolitania with German backing, was mistrusted by the Arab nationalists. Tribal rivalries were intense, and the aims of the beduin shaykhs and the nationalists were fundamentally different, the latter being concerned with forming a centralized republic while the former were interested primarily in creating tribal states.

A prominent pan-Arab nationalist, the Egyptian Abdar Rahman Azzam, persuaded Suwaythi and Baruni to cooperate in demanding Italian recognition of an independent republic that was called into being at Misratah in 1919. Talks with the Italians broke down when the Misratah republic's governing body, the so-called Reform Committee, claimed jurisdiction over Libya rather than over Tripolitania only. In 1920 delegates from both occupied and unoccupied zones convened the National Congress at Aziza. Claiming to represent the "Tripolitanian Nation," they called for the withdrawal of the Italian forces. No nationalist movement, however, was able to rally the country behind it.

Even delegates to the National Congress had been sharply divided on the degree of cooperation with Italy they would allow. Rival delegations beat a path to Rome with their petitions for recognition. Meanwhile, Count Giuseppe Volpi, a vigorous and determined governor, gave decisive direction to Italian policy in Tripolitania with his advocacy of military pacification rather than negotiation. The nationalists lost their most effective leaders when Baruni defected to the Italians as a result of hostility between Arabs and Berbers, which Volpi successfully exploited, and Suwaythi was killed by his political rivals.

In this situation, the Tripolitanian nationalists met with the Sanusis at Surt early in 1922 and offered to accept Idris as amir of Tripolitania. Idris had never sought any title other than the one he held in Cyrenaica, and he was not anxious to extend either his political influence or his religious leadership to northern Tripolitania, where neither he nor the Sanusi order was widely popular. He had always refused aid to Tripolitanian nationalists and under the circumstances considered their offer to have been made for reasons of expediency, that is, because there was no alternative candidate for leadership apparent at the time. Idris' acceptance, as the nationalists understood, would draw sharp Italian disapproval and be the signal for the resumption of open warfare. War with Italy, in any event, appeared likely sooner or later. For several months, Idris pondered the nationalist appeal. For whatever reason--perhaps to further the cause of total independence or perhaps out of a sense of religious obligation to resist the infidel--Idris accepted the amirate of all Libya in November and then, to avoid capture by the Italians, fled to Egypt, where he continued to guide the Sanusi order.

Data as of 1987

Background		The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area around Tripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 when defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya, supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992 isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began to rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libya accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism. QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations with Western nations since then. He has received various Western European leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January 2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed a bilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensate claimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the hands of the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelle disco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the US Government received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement to distribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectively normalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countries then exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January 2009. QADHAFI in February 2009 took over as chairman of the African Union for the 2009-10 term; in September 2009, a Libyan took over the year-long presidency of UN General Assembly.
Location		Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Tunisia
Area(sq km)		total: 1,759,540 sq km land: 1,759,540 sq km water: 0 sq km
Geographic coordinates		25 00 N, 17 00 E
Land boundaries(km)		total: 4,348 km border countries: Algeria 982 km, Chad 1,055 km, Egypt 1,115 km, Niger 354 km, Sudan 383 km, Tunisia 459 km
Coastline(km)		1,770 km
Climate		Mediterranean along coast; dry, extreme desert interior
Elevation extremes(m)		lowest point: Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m highest point: Bikku Bitti 2,267 m
Natural resources		petroleum, natural gas, gypsum
Land use(%)		arable land: 1.03% permanent crops: 0.19% other: 98.78% (2005)
Irrigated land(sq km)		4,700 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources(cu km)		0.6 cu km (1997)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)		total: 4.27 cu km/yr (14%/3%/83%) per capita: 730 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards		hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms
Environment - current issues		desertification; limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities
Environment - international agreements		party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Geography - note		more than 90% of the country is desert or semidesert
Population		6,310,434 note: includes 166,510 non-nationals (July 2009 est.)
Age structure(%)		0-14 years: 33% (male 1,064,866/female 1,019,790) 15-64 years: 62.7% (male 2,033,478/female 1,920,755) 65 years and over: 4.3% (male 133,092/female 138,453) (2009 est.)
Median age(years)		total: 23.9 years male: 24 years female: 23.8 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate(%)		2.17% (2009 est.)
Birth rate(births/1,000 population)		25.15 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population)		3.45 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population)		NA (2009 est.)
Urbanization(%)		urban population: 78% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 2.2% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio(male(s)/female)		at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.96 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births)		total: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births male: 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births female: 18.78 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth(years)		total population: 77.26 years male: 74.98 years female: 79.65 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate(children born/woman)		3.08 children born/woman (2009 est.)
Nationality		noun: Libyan(s) adjective: Libyan
Ethnic groups(%)		Berber and Arab 97%, other 3% (includes Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians, and Tunisians)
Religions(%)		Sunni Muslim 97%, other 3%
Languages(%)		Arabic, Italian, English, all are widely understood in the major cities
Country name		conventional long form: Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya conventional short form: Libya local long form: Al Jamahiriyah al Arabiyah al Libiyah ash Shabiyah al Ishtirakiyah al Uthma local short form: none
Government type		Jamahiriya (a state of the masses) in theory, governed by the populace through local councils; in practice, an authoritarian state
Capital		name: Tripoli (Tarabulus) geographic coordinates: 32 53 N, 13 10 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions		25 municipalities (baladiyat, singular - baladiyah); Ajdabiya, Al 'Aziziyah, Al Fatih, Al Jabal al Akhdar, Al Jufrah, Al Khums, Al Kufrah, An Nuqat al Khams, Ash Shati', Awbari, Az Zawiyah, Banghazi, Darnah, Ghadamis, Gharyan, Misratah, Murzuq, Sabha, Sawfajjin, Surt, Tarabulus, Tarhunah, Tubruq, Yafran, Zlitan; note - the 25 municipalities may have been replaced by 13 regions
Constitution		none; note - following the September 1969 military overthrow of the Libyan government, the Revolutionary Command Council replaced the existing constitution with the Constitutional Proclamation in December 1969; in March 1977, Libya adopted the Declaration of the Establishment of the People's Authority
Legal system		based on Italian and French civil law systems and Islamic law; separate religious courts; no constitutional provision for judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage		18 years of age; universal and technically compulsory
Executive branch		chief of state: Revolutionary Leader Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI (since 1 September 1969); note - holds no official title, but is de facto chief of state head of government: Secretary of the General People's Committee (Prime Minister) al-Baghdadi Ali al-MAHMUDI (since 5 March 2006) cabinet: General People's Committee established by the General People's Congress elections: national elections are indirect through a hierarchy of people's committees; head of government elected by the General People's Congress; election last held March 2009 (next to be held NA) election results: NA
Legislative branch		unicameral General People's Congress (760 seats; members elected indirectly through a hierarchy of people's committees)
Judicial branch		Supreme Court
Political pressure groups and leaders		other: Arab nationalist movements; anti-QADHAFI Libyan exile Movement; Islamic elements
International organization participation		ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AMU, AU, CAEU, COMESA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer)
Flag description		plain green; green is the traditional color of Islam (the state religion)
Economy - overview		The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which contribute about 95% of export earnings, about one-quarter of GDP, and 60% of public sector wages. The expected weakness in world hydrocarbon prices throughout 2009 will reduce Libyan government tax income and constrain Libyan economic growth in 2009. Substantial revenues from the energy sector coupled with a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa, but little of this income flows down to the lower orders of society. Libyan officials in the past five years have made progress on economic reforms as part of a broader campaign to reintegrate the country into the international fold. This effort picked up steam after UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003 and as Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction. UN Sanctions against Libya were lifted in September 2003. The process of lifting US unilateral sanctions began in the spring of 2004; all sanctions were removed by June 2006, helping Libya attract greater foreign direct investment, especially in the energy sector. Libyan oil and gas licensing rounds continue to draw high international interest; the National Oil Company set a goal of nearly doubling oil production to 3 million bbl/day by 2012. Libya faces a long road ahead in liberalizing the socialist-oriented economy, but initial steps - including applying for WTO membership, reducing some subsidies, and announcing plans for privatization - are laying the groundwork for a transition to a more market-based economy. The non-oil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for more than 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals, iron, steel, and aluminum. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food. Libya's primary agricultural water source remains the Great Manmade River Project, but significant resources are being invested in desalinization research to meet growing water demands.
GDP (purchasing power parity)		$87.72 billion (2008 est.) $82.83 billion (2007 est.) $78.44 billion (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate)		$89.92 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate(%)		5.9% (2008 est.) 5.6% (2007 est.) 5.9% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP)		$14,200 (2008 est.) $13,700 (2007 est.) $13,300 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector(%)		agriculture: 1.7% industry: 70.9% services: 27.4% (2008 est.)
Labor force		1.64 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation(%)		agriculture: 17% industry: 23% services: 59% (2004 est.)
Unemployment rate(%)		30% (2004 est.)
Population below poverty line(%)		7.4% (2005 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%)		lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP)		9.3% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget		revenues: $58.04 billion expenditures: $35.22 billion (2008 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%)		10.4% (2008 est.) 6.3% (2007 est.)
Stock of money		$26.66 billion (31 December 2008) $18.04 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi money		$4.264 billion (31 December 2008) $3.192 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit		$NA (31 December 2008) $NA (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares		$NA
Economic aid - recipient		ODA, $24.44 million (2005 est.)
Public debt(% of GDP)		4% of GDP (2008 est.) 8.8% of GDP (2004 est.)
Agriculture - products		wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans; cattle
Industries		petroleum, iron and steel, food processing, textiles, handicrafts, cement
Industrial production growth rate(%)		6.2% (2008 est.)
Current account balance		$37.39 billion (2008 est.) $28.45 billion (2007 est.)
Exports		$64.5 billion (2008 est.) $46.97 billion (2007 est.)
Exports - commodities(%)		crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas, chemicals
Exports - partners(%)		Italy 38%, Germany 12%, France 7.4%, Spain 6.9%, US 6.4%, Switzerland 4.6% (2008)
Imports		$26.55 billion (2008 est.) $17.7 billion (2007 est.)
Imports - commodities(%)		machinery, semi-finished goods, food, transport equipment, consumer products
Imports - partners(%)		Italy 22.2%, China 9.3%, Germany 8.6%, Turkey 6.1%, Tunisia 5.8%, South Korea 4.7%, US 4.1%, France 4.1% (2008)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold		$92.51 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $79.6 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Debt - external		$6.223 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $4.837 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home		$11.23 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $8.775 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad		$5.15 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $3.7 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Exchange rates		Libyan dinars (LYD) per US dollar - 1.2112 (2008 est.), 1.2604 (2007), 1.3108 (2006), 1.3084 (2005), 1.305 (2004)
Currency (code)		Libyan dinar (LYD)
Telephones - main lines in use		1.033 million (2008)
Telephones - mobile cellular		4.828 million (2008)
Telephone system		general assessment: telecommunications system is state-owned and service is poor, but investment is being made to upgrade; state retains monopoly in fixed-line services; mobile cellular telephone system became operational in 1996; multiple providers for a mobile telephone system that is growing rapidly; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density is approaching 100 telephones per 100 persons domestic: microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, cellular, tropospheric scatter, and a domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations international: country code - 218; satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat, NA Arabsat, and NA Intersputnik; submarine cables to France and Italy; microwave radio relay to Tunisia and Egypt; tropospheric scatter to Greece; participant in Medarabtel (2008)
Internet country code		.ly
Internet users		323,000 (2008)
Airports		137 (2009)
Pipelines(km)		condensate 776 km; gas 2,860 km; oil 6,987 km (2008)
Roadways(km)		total: 100,024 km paved: 57,214 km unpaved: 42,810 km (2003)
Ports and terminals		As Sidrah, Az Zuwaytinah, Marsa al Burayqah, Ra's Lanuf, Tripoli, Zawiyah
Military branches		Armed Peoples on Duty (APOD, Army), Libyan Arab Navy, Libyan Arab Air Force (Al-Quwwat al-Jawwiya al-Jamahiriya al-Arabia al-Libyya, LAAF), Libyan Coast Guard (2008)
Military service age and obligation(years of age)		17 years of age (2004)
Manpower available for military service		males age 16-49: 1,682,183 females age 16-49: 1,611,001 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service		males age 16-49: 1,466,578 females age 16-49: 1,409,684 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually		male: 60,710 female: 58,219 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures(% of GDP)		3.9% of GDP (2005 est.)
Disputes - international		Libya has claimed more than 32,000 sq km in southeastern Algeria and about 25,000 sq km in the Tommo region of Niger in a currently dormant dispute; various Chadian rebels from the Aozou region reside in southern Libya
Refugees and internally displaced persons		refugees (country of origin): 8,000 (Palestinian Territories) (2007)
Trafficking in persons		current situation: Libya is a transit and destination country for men and women from sub-Saharan Africa and Asia trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - Libya is on the Tier 2 Watch List for its failure to provide evidence of increasing efforts to address trafficking in persons in 2007 when compared to 2006, particularly in the area of investigating and prosecuting trafficking offenses; Libya did not publicly release any data on investigations or punishment of any trafficking offenses (2008)
Electricity - production(kWh)		23.98 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - production by source(%)		fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
Electricity - consumption(kWh)		22.17 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - exports(kWh)		104 million kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - imports(kWh)		77 million kWh (2007 est.)
Oil - production(bbl/day)		1.875 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - consumption(bbl/day)		273,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - exports(bbl/day)		1.542 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - imports(bbl/day)		575.3 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - proved reserves(bbl)		43.66 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
Natural gas - production(cu m)		15.9 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - consumption(cu m)		5.5 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - exports(cu m)		10.4 billion cu m (2008)
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m)		1.54 trillion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%)		0.3% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS		10,000 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths		NA
Literacy(%)		definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 82.6% male: 92.4% female: 72% (2003 est.)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)(years)		total: 17 years male: 16 years female: 17 years (2003)
Education expenditures(% of GDP)		2.7% of GDP (1999)