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Egypt
Index
Egypt based its criminal codes and court operations primarily
on British, Italian, and Napoleonic models. Criminal court
procedures had been substantially modified by the heritage of
Islamic legal and social patterns and the legacy of numerous kinds
of courts that formerly existed. The divergent sources and
philosophical origins of these laws and the inapplicability of many
borrowed Western legal concepts occasioned difficulties in
administering Egyptian law. The Criminal Procedure Code of 1950
prescribed the jurisdiction of various courts and provided basic
guidance for the conduct of investigations and trial procedures.
The Muslim Brotherhood and other Islamist groups brought
demands on the government to adopt Islamic sharia. Government
officials argued that adopting Islamic sharia was not necessary
because 95 percent of Egypt's laws were already consistent with or
derived from Islamic law. In 1985 the People's Assembly rejected
demands for the immediate adoption of the sharia but supported a
recommendation to review all statutes and change the ones that
conflicted with Islamic law. This process, which continued for
years, necessitated the review of approximately 6,000 laws and
10,000 peripheral legal acts.
The criminal code listed three main categories of crime:
contraventions (minor offenses), misdemeanors (offenses punishable
by imprisonment or fines), and felonies (offenses punishable by
penal servitude or death). Lower courts handled the majority of the
cases that reached adjudication and levied fines in about nine out
of ten cases. At their discretion, courts could suspend fines or
imprisonment (when a sentence did not exceed one year). At the
village level, an umdah (pl., umada, village headman)
representing the central authority was responsible for maintaining
order. The umdah could also adjudicate some minor offenses
and impose short prison sentences.
Capital crimes that carried a possible death sentence included
murder, manslaughter occurring in the commission of a felony, arson
or the use of explosives that caused death, rape, treason, and
endangerment of state security. Few convictions for capital crimes,
however, resulted in execution. The supreme court, the
mufti (see Glossary) of Egypt,
and the president reviewed each death sentence.
In 1987 Egypt executed six individuals for murder and two others
for abduction and rape.
The investigation of a crime was a sort of preliminary trial,
and the results of the investigation determined the disposition of
the case. The Office of the Public Prosecutor, an institution under
the Ministry of Justice, conducted investigations. After an
investigation with the help of police officials from the district
involved, the public prosecutor could decide to drop a case if the
charges were not serious enough to warrant a trial.
Egypt's laws required that a detained person be brought before
a magistrate and formally charged within forty-eight hours or
released. The accused was entitled to post bail and had the right
to be defended by legal counsel. Searches could not be conducted
without a warrant. Trials were open to the public, but the court
could choose to hold all or part of the hearing in camera "in order
to preserve public order or morals." According to the United States
Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices, Egypt's judiciary acted independently and carefully
observed constitutional and legal safeguards in arrests and
pretrial custody. The Emergency Law of 1958 outlined special
judicial procedures for some cases. The law enabled authorities to
circumvent the increasingly independent regular court system in
cases where people were charged with endangering state security.
The law applied primarily to Islamic radicals but also covered
leftists suspected of political violence, drug smugglers, and
illegal currency dealers. It also allowed detention of striking
workers, pro-Palestinian student demonstrators, and relatives of
fugitives.
The Emergency Law of 1958 authorized the judicial system to
detain people without charging them or guaranteeing them due
process while an investigation was under way. After thirty days, a
detainee could petition the State Security Court to review the
case. If the court ordered the detainee's release, the minister of
interior had fifteen days to object. If the minister overruled the
court's decision, the detainee could petition another State
Security Court for release after thirty more days. If the second
court supported the detainee's petition, it released the detainee.
The minister of interior could, however, simply rearrest the
detainee. The government commonly engaged in this practice in cases
involving Islamic extremists.
The State Security Courts in the trials they conducted barred
secret testimony, upheld defendants' rights to be represented by an
attorney, and gave attorneys access to the prosecution's
investigations. Trials were usually in public, except in some cases
involving political violence. Convicted persons could appeal to the
Court of Cassation
(see The Judiciary, Civil Rights, and the Rule of Law
, ch. 4). The State Security Courts drew their judges from
the ranks of the senior judiciary.
In most cases, detainees were released after a period of
interrogation and were never brought to trial. In mid-1989 the
minister of interior stated that a total of 12,000 individuals had
been detained under the Emergency Law of 1958 during the preceding
three years. The minister of interior stated that as of early 1990
the government was detaining 2,411 individuals, 813 of whom were
being held on political charges.
In certain instances, civilian suspects could be turned over to
military courts for trial on the basis of a presidential order.
This practice was the subject of a constitutional challenge
initiated in 1989.
In 1980 the government created a separate judicial institution,
the Court of Ethics, together with its investigating arm, the
Office of the Socialist Prosecutor, to investigate complaints of
widespread corruption in government. The court was charged with
trying offenses against "socialist values," which included
corruption and illegal business practices. The Office of the
Socialist Prosecutor served as watchdog against abuses by
government officials; approved the credentials of candidates for
office in the trade union movement, professional syndicates, and
local government councils; and performed security checks on senior
government appointees.
Data as of December 1990
![[JPEG]](/images/frd/cs/jpeg.gif)
Immigration officer checking passport of one of about
2 million tourists who visit annually
Courtesy Embassy of Egypt, Washington
The Judicial System
Egypt based its criminal codes and court operations primarily
on British, Italian, and Napoleonic models. Criminal court
procedures had been substantially modified by the heritage of
Islamic legal and social patterns and the legacy of numerous kinds
of courts that formerly existed. The divergent sources and
philosophical origins of these laws and the inapplicability of many
borrowed Western legal concepts occasioned difficulties in
administering Egyptian law. The Criminal Procedure Code of 1950
prescribed the jurisdiction of various courts and provided basic
guidance for the conduct of investigations and trial procedures.
The Muslim Brotherhood and other Islamist groups brought
demands on the government to adopt Islamic sharia. Government
officials argued that adopting Islamic sharia was not necessary
because 95 percent of Egypt's laws were already consistent with or
derived from Islamic law. In 1985 the People's Assembly rejected
demands for the immediate adoption of the sharia but supported a
recommendation to review all statutes and change the ones that
conflicted with Islamic law. This process, which continued for
years, necessitated the review of approximately 6,000 laws and
10,000 peripheral legal acts.
The criminal code listed three main categories of crime:
contraventions (minor offenses), misdemeanors (offenses punishable
by imprisonment or fines), and felonies (offenses punishable by
penal servitude or death). Lower courts handled the majority of the
cases that reached adjudication and levied fines in about nine out
of ten cases. At their discretion, courts could suspend fines or
imprisonment (when a sentence did not exceed one year). At the
village level, an umdah (pl., umada, village headman)
representing the central authority was responsible for maintaining
order. The umdah could also adjudicate some minor offenses
and impose short prison sentences.
Capital crimes that carried a possible death sentence included
murder, manslaughter occurring in the commission of a felony, arson
or the use of explosives that caused death, rape, treason, and
endangerment of state security. Few convictions for capital crimes,
however, resulted in execution. The supreme court, the
mufti (see Glossary) of Egypt,
and the president reviewed each death sentence.
In 1987 Egypt executed six individuals for murder and two others
for abduction and rape.
The investigation of a crime was a sort of preliminary trial,
and the results of the investigation determined the disposition of
the case. The Office of the Public Prosecutor, an institution under
the Ministry of Justice, conducted investigations. After an
investigation with the help of police officials from the district
involved, the public prosecutor could decide to drop a case if the
charges were not serious enough to warrant a trial.
Egypt's laws required that a detained person be brought before
a magistrate and formally charged within forty-eight hours or
released. The accused was entitled to post bail and had the right
to be defended by legal counsel. Searches could not be conducted
without a warrant. Trials were open to the public, but the court
could choose to hold all or part of the hearing in camera "in order
to preserve public order or morals." According to the United States
Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices, Egypt's judiciary acted independently and carefully
observed constitutional and legal safeguards in arrests and
pretrial custody. The Emergency Law of 1958 outlined special
judicial procedures for some cases. The law enabled authorities to
circumvent the increasingly independent regular court system in
cases where people were charged with endangering state security.
The law applied primarily to Islamic radicals but also covered
leftists suspected of political violence, drug smugglers, and
illegal currency dealers. It also allowed detention of striking
workers, pro-Palestinian student demonstrators, and relatives of
fugitives.
The Emergency Law of 1958 authorized the judicial system to
detain people without charging them or guaranteeing them due
process while an investigation was under way. After thirty days, a
detainee could petition the State Security Court to review the
case. If the court ordered the detainee's release, the minister of
interior had fifteen days to object. If the minister overruled the
court's decision, the detainee could petition another State
Security Court for release after thirty more days. If the second
court supported the detainee's petition, it released the detainee.
The minister of interior could, however, simply rearrest the
detainee. The government commonly engaged in this practice in cases
involving Islamic extremists.
The State Security Courts in the trials they conducted barred
secret testimony, upheld defendants' rights to be represented by an
attorney, and gave attorneys access to the prosecution's
investigations. Trials were usually in public, except in some cases
involving political violence. Convicted persons could appeal to the
Court of Cassation
(see The Judiciary, Civil Rights, and the Rule of Law
, ch. 4). The State Security Courts drew their judges from
the ranks of the senior judiciary.
In most cases, detainees were released after a period of
interrogation and were never brought to trial. In mid-1989 the
minister of interior stated that a total of 12,000 individuals had
been detained under the Emergency Law of 1958 during the preceding
three years. The minister of interior stated that as of early 1990
the government was detaining 2,411 individuals, 813 of whom were
being held on political charges.
In certain instances, civilian suspects could be turned over to
military courts for trial on the basis of a presidential order.
This practice was the subject of a constitutional challenge
initiated in 1989.
In 1980 the government created a separate judicial institution,
the Court of Ethics, together with its investigating arm, the
Office of the Socialist Prosecutor, to investigate complaints of
widespread corruption in government. The court was charged with
trying offenses against "socialist values," which included
corruption and illegal business practices. The Office of the
Socialist Prosecutor served as watchdog against abuses by
government officials; approved the credentials of candidates for
office in the trade union movement, professional syndicates, and
local government councils; and performed security checks on senior
government appointees.
Data as of December 1990
- Egypt-Current Account Balance
- Egypt-The Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers, and the Policy-making Process
- Egypt-Importance of Kinship FAMILY AND KINSHIP
- Egypt-October 1973 War
- Egypt-Major Cities
- Egypt-Interest Groups
- Egypt-Rural Society
- Egypt-The Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and Second Intermediate Period, 2686 to 1552 B.C.
- Egypt-The Cult of the Sun God and Akhenaten's Monotheism
- Egypt-Eastern Desert
- Egypt-Mubarak's Gradualism?
- Egypt-Energy
- Egypt-The Mamluks, 1250-1517
- Egypt-Remittances
- Egypt-Air Defense Force
- Egypt-INTRODUCTION
- Egypt-Petroleum
- Egypt-FOREIGN TRADE
- Egypt-ENERGY, MINING, AND MANUFACTURING
- Egypt-Egypt under Rome and Byzantium, 30 B.C.-A.D - 640
- Egypt-PREFACE
- Egypt-Towns and Cities
- Egypt-Elections
- Egypt-GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
- Egypt-Development Planning
- Egypt-The Determinants of Foreign Policy FOREIGN POLICY
- Egypt-Chapter 3 - The Economy
- Egypt-GEOGRAPHY
- Egypt-Navy
- Egypt-Wages
- Egypt-The Aftermath of Camp David and the Assassination of Sadat
- Egypt-FOREIGN MILITARY ASSISTANCE
- Egypt-CONTROLLING THE MASS POLITICAL ARENA
- Egypt-Egypt During the War, 1939-45
- Egypt-Minorities
- Egypt-MUBARAK AND THE MIDDLE WAY
- Egypt-LABOR
- Egypt-Changing Status of Women
- Egypt-THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
- Egypt-The Political Role of the Media
- Egypt-The June 1967 War
- Egypt-Exports
- Egypt-Physical Size and Borders GEOGRAPHY
- Egypt-DEBT AND RESTRUCTURING
- Egypt-Nile Valley and Delta
- Egypt-Land Reclamation and Loss
- Egypt-Communications
- Egypt-The Penal System
- Egypt-Contemporary Islam
- Egypt-Technology
- Egypt-Western Desert
- Egypt-The Rise and Decline of the Wafd, 1924-39 THE ERA OF LIBERAL CONSTITUTIONALISM AND PARTY POLITICS
- Egypt-Khedive Ismail, 1863-79 FROM AUTONOMY TO OCCUPATION: ISMAIL, TAWFIQ, AND THE URABI REVOLT
- Egypt-AGRICULTURE
- Egypt-Chapter 1 - Historical Setting
- Egypt-Economy and Society under Occupation
- Egypt-Employment
- Egypt-THE ARMED FORCES
- Egypt-Direct Foreign Investment
- Egypt-Leftist Organizations
- Egypt-Politics among Elites
- Egypt-The 1956 War
- Egypt-The "Dominant Party System"
- Egypt-Foreign Policy Decision Making
- Egypt-The Road to Power: Recruitment and Composition of the Elite
- Egypt-Manufacturing Mining
- Egypt-Pricing Policy
- Egypt-Defense Spending
- Egypt-Chapter 5 - National Security
- Egypt-SECURITY CONCERNS AND STRATEGIC PERSPECTIVES
- Egypt-The Food Gap
- Egypt-From Intervention to Occupation, 1876-82
- Egypt-Peace with Israel
- Egypt-The French Invasion and Occupation, 1798-1801
- Egypt-TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
- Egypt-Production of Civilian Goods ARMED FORCES PRODUCTION
- Egypt-Nasser's Legacy
- Egypt-Climate
- Egypt-STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMY
- Egypt-The Alexandrian Conquest PTOLEMAIC, ROMAN, AND BYZANTINE EGYPT, 332 B.C.-A.D - 642
- Egypt-The Tulinids, Ikhshidids, Fatimids, and Ayyubids, 868- 1260
- Egypt-Chapter 4 - Government and Politics
- Egypt-THE MILITARY IN NATIONAL LIFE
- Egypt-Air Force
- Egypt-Land Ownership and Reform
- Egypt-The Arab Conquest, 639-41 MEDIEVAL EGYPT
- Egypt-Defense Industry
- Egypt-Attitudes Toward Women
- Egypt-Internal Relations THE AFTERMATH OF THE WAR
- Egypt-Local Government
- Egypt-MILITARY HERITAGE
- Egypt-The New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 B.C.
- Egypt-THE SUBORDINATE BRANCHES: THE REGIME AND ITS CONSTITUENCY
- Egypt-Sinai Peninsula
- Egypt-Police
- Egypt-Banking, Credit, and Inflation
- Egypt-The Opposition Parties
- Egypt-Chapter 2 - The Society and Its Environment
- Egypt-Rural Society
- Egypt-War of Attrition and the October 1973 War
- Egypt-SOCIETY
- Egypt-The Bureaucracy and Policy Implementation
- Egypt-Organization
- Egypt-Urban Society
- Egypt-The Judicial System CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
- Egypt-ECONOMY
- Egypt-Islamic Political Movements
- Egypt-Sadat Takes Over, 1970-73
- Egypt-Elite Ideology
- Egypt-Trade Partners
- Egypt-Cropping Patterns, Production, and Yield
- Egypt-Natural Regions
- Egypt-The Development of Foreign Policy
- Egypt-Art and Architecture in the New Kingdom
- Egypt
- Egypt-Muhammad Ali, 1805-48
- Egypt-Egypt under the Protectorate and the 1919 Revolution
- Egypt
- Egypt-Population Control Policies
- Egypt-Foreword
- Egypt
- Egypt-Emigration
- Egypt-The Revolution and the Early Years of the New Government: 1952-56
- Egypt-EDUCATION
- Egypt-Loans
- Egypt-The June 1967 War
- Egypt-The Egyptian Military in World War II
- Egypt-Military Justice
- Egypt-RELIGION
- Egypt-Exchange Rates
- Egypt-Central Security Forces
- Egypt-Social Change in the Nineteenth Century
- Egypt-Islam
- Egypt-The Ptolemaic Period
- Egypt-Suez Canal
- Egypt-Coptic Church
- Egypt-SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
- Egypt-Capital Account and Capital Grants
- Egypt-Drug Trafficking
- Egypt-NATIONAL SECURITY
- Egypt-Incidence of Crime
- Egypt
- Egypt-The Limits of Incorporation: The Rise of Political Islam and the Continuing Role of Repression
- Egypt-Training and Education
- Egypt-The Judiciary, Civil Rights, and the Rule of Law
- Egypt-Uniforms and Insignia
- Egypt-HEALTH AND WELFARE
- Egypt-Imports
- Egypt-The President and the Power Elite
- Egypt-First Arab-Israeli War
- Egypt-External Relations
- Egypt-INTERNAL SECURITY
- Egypt-Egypt's New Direction
- Egypt-The Late Period, 664-323 B.C.
- Egypt-Pyramid Building in the Old and Middle Kingdoms
- Egypt-Acknowledgments
- Egypt-The Occupiers FROM OCCUPATION TO NOMINAL INDEPENDENCE: 1882-1923
- Egypt
- Egypt
- Egypt-Transportation
- Egypt-The Predynastic Period and the First and Second Dynasties, 6000-2686 B.C - ANCIENT EGYPT
- Egypt-Training
- Egypt-Conscription and Reserves
- Egypt-Intelligence Services
- Egypt
- Egypt-Egypt and the Arab World
- Egypt-The Politics of Economic Strategy
- Egypt-Tourism
- Egypt-Egypt, the Arabs, and Israel
- Egypt-On the Threshold of Revolution, 1945-52
- Egypt-Early Developments
- Egypt-Army
- Egypt-Other Religious Minorities
- Egypt
- Egypt-The Presidency THE DOMINANT EXECUTIVE AND THE POWER ELITE
- Egypt-Egypt
- Egypt -COUNTRY PROFILE
- Egypt-EGYPT UNDER THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
- Egypt-Abbas Hilmi I, 1848-54 and Said, 1854-63
- Egypt-Political Developments, 1971-78
- Egypt-Nasser and Arab Socialism
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Background | | The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure.
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Location | | Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula
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Area(sq km) | | total: 1,001,450 sq km
land: 995,450 sq km
water: 6,000 sq km
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Geographic coordinates | | 27 00 N, 30 00 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 2,665 km
border countries: Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 266 km, Libya 1,115 km, Sudan 1,273 km
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Coastline(km) | | 2,450 km
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Climate | | desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Qattara Depression -133 m
highest point: Mount Catherine 2,629 m
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Natural resources | | petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc
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Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.92%
permanent crops: 0.5%
other: 96.58% (2005)
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Irrigated land(sq km) | | 34,220 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 86.8 cu km (1997)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 68.3 cu km/yr (8%/6%/86%)
per capita: 923 cu m/yr (2000)
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Natural hazards | | periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes; flash floods; landslides; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms; sandstorms
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Environment - current issues | | agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
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Geography - note | | controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics; dependence on upstream neighbors; dominance of Nile basin issues; prone to influxes of refugees
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Population | | 83,082,869 (July 2009 est.)
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 31.4% (male 13,345,500/female 12,743,878)
15-64 years: 63.8% (male 26,823,127/female 26,169,421)
65 years and over: 4.8% (male 1,701,068/female 2,299,875) (2009 est.)
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Median age(years) | | total: 24.8 years
male: 24.4 years
female: 25.2 years (2009 est.)
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Population growth rate(%) | | 1.642% (2009 est.)
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Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 21.7 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 5.08 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
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Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | -0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 43% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 1.8% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female
total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 27.26 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 28.93 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 25.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 72.12 years
male: 69.56 years
female: 74.81 years (2009 est.)
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Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 2.66 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Egyptian(s)
adjective: Egyptian
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Egyptian 99.6%, other 0.4% (2006 census)
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Religions(%) | | Muslim (mostly Sunni) 90%, Coptic 9%, other Christian 1%
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Languages(%) | | Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes
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Country name | | conventional long form: Arab Republic of Egypt
conventional short form: Egypt
local long form: Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah
local short form: Misr
former: United Arab Republic (with Syria)
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Government type | | republic
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Capital | | name: Cairo
geographic coordinates: 30 03 N, 31 15 E
time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Friday in April; ends last Thursday in September
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Administrative divisions | | 26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar (Red Sea), Al Buhayrah (El Beheira), Al Fayyum (El Faiyum), Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah (Alexandria), Al Isma'iliyah (Ismailia), Al Jizah (Giza), Al Minufiyah (El Monofia), Al Minya, Al Qahirah (Cairo), Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid (New Valley), As Suways (Suez), Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf (Beni Suef), Bur Sa'id (Port Said), Dumyat (Damietta), Janub Sina' (South Sinai), Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh (Western Desert), Qina (Qena), Shamal Sina' (North Sinai), Suhaj (Sohag)
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Constitution | | 11 September 1971; amended 22 May 1980, 25 May 2005, and 26 March 2007
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Legal system | | based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
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Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
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Executive branch | | chief of state: President Mohamed Hosni MUBARAK (since 14 October 1981)
head of government: Prime Minister Ahmed Mohamed NAZIF (since 9 July 2004)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
elections: president elected by popular vote for six-year term (no term limits); note - a national referendum in May 2005 approved a constitutional amendment that changed the presidential election to a multicandidate popular vote; previously the president was nominated by the People's Assembly and the nomination was validated by a national, popular referendum; last referendum held 26 September 1999; first election under terms of constitutional amendment held 7 September 2005; next election scheduled for 2011
election results: Hosni MUBARAK reelected president; percent of vote - Hosni MUBARAK 88.6%, Ayman NOUR 7.6%, Noman GOMAA 2.9%
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Legislative branch | | bicameral system consists of the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura (Shura Council) that traditionally functions only in a consultative role but 2007 constitutional amendments could grant the Council new powers (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve six-year terms; mid-term elections for half of the elected members) and the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
elections: Advisory Council - last held June 2007 (next to be held May-June 2010); People's Assembly - three-phase voting - last held 7 and 20 November, 1 December 2005; (next to be held November-December 2010)
election results: Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDP 84, Tagammu 1, independents 3; People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDP 311, NWP 6, Tagammu 2, Tomorrow Party 1, independents 112 (12 seats to be determined by rerun elections, 10 seats appointed by President)
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Judicial branch | | Supreme Constitutional Court
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Muslim Brotherhood (technically illegal)
note: despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties and political activity, the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes Hosni MUBARAK's potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAK has alternated between tolerating limited political activity by the Brotherhood (its members, who ran as independents, hold 88 seats in the People's Assembly) and blocking its influence; civic society groups are sanctioned, but constrained in practical terms; only trade unions and professional associations affiliated with the government are officially sanctioned; Internet social networking groups and bloggers
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International organization participation | | ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, COMESA, EBRD, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, MINURCAT, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
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Flag description | | three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; design is based on the Arab Liberation flag and similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars in the white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band
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Economy - overview | | Occupying the northeast corner of the African continent, Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile valley, where most economic activity takes place. Egypt's economy was highly centralized during the rule of former President Gamal Abdel NASSER but has opened up considerably under former President Anwar EL-SADAT and current President Mohamed Hosni MUBARAK. Cairo from 2004 to 2008 aggressively pursued economic reforms to attract foreign investment and facilitate GDP growth, but is postponing further economic reforms because of global economic turmoil. The international economic downturn slowed Egypt's GDP growth to 4.5% in 2009, predominately affecting export-oriented sectors, including manufacturing and tourism. Unemployment is rising. In 2009 the government implemented a $2.7 billion stimulus package favoring infrastructure projects and export subsidies, and is considering up to $3.3 billion in additional stimulus spending in 2010 to mitigate the slowdown in economic growth. The government of Prime Minister Ahmed NAZIF will need to restart economic reforms to attract foreign investment, boost growth, and improve economic conditions for the broader population. Despite high levels of economic growth over the past few years, living conditions for the average Egyptian remain poor.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $444.8 billion (2008 est.)
$414.9 billion (2007 est.)
$387.4 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate) | | $162.6 billion (2008 est.)
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GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 7.2% (2008 est.)
7.1% (2007 est.)
6.8% (2006 est.)
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GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $5,800 (2008 est.)
$5,500 (2007 est.)
$5,200 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 13.2%
industry: 38.7%
services: 48.1% (2008 est.)
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Labor force | | 24.6 million (2008 est.)
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Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 32%
industry: 17%
services: 51% (2001 est.)
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Unemployment rate(%) | | 8.7% (2008 est.)
9.1% (2007 est.)
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Population below poverty line(%) | | 20% (2005 est.)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: 3.9%
highest 10%: 27.6% (2005)
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Distribution of family income - Gini index | | 34.4 (2001)
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Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 19.1% of GDP (2008 est.)
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Budget | | revenues: $40.22 billion
expenditures: $51.07 billion (2008 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 18.3% (2008 est.)
9.5% (2007 est.)
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Stock of money | | $31.72 billion (31 December 2008)
$27.6 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money | | $112.2 billion (31 December 2008)
$102.6 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of domestic credit | | $126.5 billion (31 December 2008)
$113.9 billion (31 December 2007)
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Market value of publicly traded shares | | $85.89 billion (31 December 2008)
$139.3 billion (31 December 2007)
$93.48 billion (31 December 2006)
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Economic aid - recipient | | ODA, $925.9 million (2005)
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Public debt(% of GDP) | | 86.5% of GDP (2008 est.)
102.7% of GDP (2004 est.)
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Agriculture - products | | cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats
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Industries | | textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbons, construction, cement, metals, light manufactures
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Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 6.1% (2008 est.)
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Current account balance | | -$1.331 billion (2008 est.)
$500.9 million (2007 est.)
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Exports | | $29.85 billion (2008 est.)
$24.45 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
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Exports - partners(%) | | Italy 9.4%, US 7.1%, India 6.2%, Spain 6.1%, Syria 4.7%, Saudi Arabia 4.6%, Japan 4.5%, Germany 4.5% (2008)
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Imports | | $56.62 billion (2008 est.)
$44.95 billion (2007 est.)
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Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
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Imports - partners(%) | | US 10.3%, China 9.9%, Italy 7.3%, Germany 6.8%, Saudi Arabia 4.9% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $33.85 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$31.37 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Debt - external | | $32.12 billion (31 December 2008)
$32.84 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $59.13 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$49.23 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $12.08 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$11.58 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Exchange rates | | Egyptian pounds (EGP) per US dollar - 5.4 (2008 est.), 5.67 (2007), 5.725 (2006), 5.78 (2005), 6.1962 (2004)
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Currency (code) | | Egyptian pound (EGP)
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 12.011 million (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 41.272 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Telecom Egypt, the landline monopoly, has been increasing service availability and in 2008 fixed-line density stood at 15 per 100 persons; as of 2008 there were three mobile-cellular networks with a total of more than 41 million subscribers, roughly 50 per 100 persons
domestic: principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay
international: country code - 20; landing point for both the SEA-ME-WE-3 and SEA-ME-WE-4 submarine cable networks; linked to the international submarine cable FLAG (Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe); satellite earth stations - 4 (2 Intelsat - Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat); tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel (2008)
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Internet country code | | .eg
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Internet users | | 11.414 million (2008)
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Airports | | 85 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | condensate 320 km; condensate/gas 13 km; gas 5,586 km; liquid petroleum gas 956 km; oil 4,314 km; oil/gas/water 3 km; refined products 895 km; unknown 59 km; water 9 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 92,370 km
paved: 74,820 km
unpaved: 17,550 km (2004)
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Ports and terminals | | Ayn Sukhnah, Alexandria, Damietta, El Dekheila, Sidi Kurayr, Suez
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Military branches | | Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command
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Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 18-30 years of age for male conscript military service; service obligation 12-36 months, followed by a 9-year reserve obligation (2008)
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Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 21,247,777
females age 16-49: 20,406,408 (2008 est.)
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Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 18,490,522
females age 16-49: 17,719,905 (2009 est.)
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Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 831,157
female: 792,330 (2009 est.)
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Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 3.4% of GDP (2005 est.)
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Disputes - international | | while Sudan retains claim to the Hala'ib Triangle north of the 1899 Treaty boundary along the 22nd Parallel, both states withdrew their military presence in the 1990s and Egypt has invested in and effectively administers the area; Egypt no longer shows its administration of the Bir Tawil trapezoid in Sudan on its maps; Gazan breaches in the security wall with Egypt in January 2008 highlight difficulties in monitoring the Sinai border
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Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 60,000 - 80,000 (Iraq); 70,198 (Palestinian Territories); 12,157 (Sudan) (2007)
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Trafficking in persons | | current situation: Egypt is a transit country for women trafficked from Eastern European countries to Israel for sexual exploitation, and is a source for children trafficked within the country for commercial sexual exploitation and domestic servitude, although the extent to which children are trafficked internally is unknown; children were also recruited for domestic and agricultural work; some of these children face conditions of involuntary servitude, such as restrictions on movement, non-payment of wages, threats, and physical or sexual abuse
tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - Egypt is on the Tier 2 Watch List for the third year in a row because it did not provide evidence of increasing efforts to investigate and prosecute traffickers; however, in July 2007, the government established the "National Coordinating Committee to Combat and Prevent Trafficking in Persons," which improved inter-governmental coordination on anti-trafficking initiatives; Egypt made no discernible efforts to punish trafficking crimes in 2007 and the Egyptian penal code does not prohibit all forms of trafficking; Egypt did not increase its services to trafficking victims during the reporting period (2008)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 118.4 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 81%
hydro: 19%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
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Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 104.1 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 814 million kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 251 million kWh (2007 est.)
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Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 630,600 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 697,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 155,200 bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 146,200 bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 3.7 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
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Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 48.3 billion cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 31.38 billion cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 16.92 billion cu m (2008)
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Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 1.656 trillion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 9,200 (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - deaths | | fewer than 500 (2007 est.)
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Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: intermediate
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
vectorborne disease: Rift Valley fever
water contact disease: schistosomiasis
note: highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified in this country; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds (2009)
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 71.4%
male: 83%
female: 59.4% (2005 est.)
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Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 4.2% of GDP (2006)
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![[JPEG]](/images/frd/cs/egypt/eg05_07b.jpg)
