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Caribbean Islands
Index
The second great watershed in Caribbean history resulted from
the abolition of slavery in the nineteenth century. In the British
Caribbean this came between 1834, when a law was passed by the
British Parliament to abolish slavery throughout the empire, and
1838, when the apprenticeship system collapsed prematurely. The
apprenticeship system was designed to ease the transition from
slavery to freedom by forcing the ex-slaves to remain on their
plantations for a period of six years. Its main purpose was to
prevent the immediate large-scale abandonment of estates by the
workers, although, with cruel irony, it was the masters and not the
slaves who were awarded compensation for the loss of their
"property." The system proved too cumbersome to administer and was
prematurely terminated in 1838. Barbados and Antigua abolished
slavery without an apprenticeship system in 1834.
Abolition of slavery was difficult for the colonies, which had
to adjust to having a majority of new citizens who could not be
denied the civil rights already grudgingly extended to the few.
Extending those civil rights, then as now, was neither easily nor
gracefully achieved because the political systems had existed for
centuries as the narrow instruments of the small, white, landed
elite, largely absentee, whose members were threatened by the
removal of their special trade preferences. Above all, there were
economic difficulties. Sugar prices were falling, and West Indian
producers were facing severe competition not only from other
producers in the British empire--such as India, South Africa, and
Australia--and nonimperial cane sugar producers--such as Cuba and
Brazil--but also from beet sugar producers in Europe and the United
States. Falling prices coincided with rising labor costs,
complicated by the urgent need to regard the ex-slaves as wage
laborers able and willing to bargain for their pay.
To mitigate labor difficulties, the local assemblies were
encouraged to import nominally free laborers from India, China, and
Africa under contracts of indenture. Apart from the condition that
they had a legally defined term of service and were guaranteed a
set wage, these Asian indentured laborers were treated like the
African slaves they partially replaced in the fields and factories.
Between 1838 and 1917, nearly half a million East Indians (from
British India) came to work on the British West Indian sugar
plantations, the majority going to the new sugar producers with
fertile lands. Trinidad imported 145,000; Jamaica, 21,500; Grenada,
2,570; St. Vincent, 1,820; and St. Lucia, 1,550. Between 1853 and
1879, British Guiana imported more than 14,000 Chinese workers,
with a few going to some of the other colonies. Between 1841 and
1867, about 32,000 indentured Africans arrived in the British West
Indies, with the greater number going to Jamaica and British
Guiana. With important British politicians such as Prime Minister
William Ewart Gladstone (1809-98) owning sugar estates in British
Guiana, that colony, directly administered by the crown, assumed
great importance in the Caribbean.
Indentured labor did not resolve the problems of the
plantations and the local governments in the Caribbean during the
nineteenth century, but it enabled the sugar plantations to weather
the difficulties of the transition from slave labor. The new
immigrants further pluralized the culture, the economy, and the
societies. The East Indians introduced rice and boosted the local
production of cacao (the bean from which cocoa is derived) and
ground provisions (tubers, fruits, and vegetables). Although some
East Indians eventually converted to Christianity and intermarried
with other ethnic groups, the majority remained faithful to their
original Hindu and Muslim beliefs, adding temples and mosques to
the religious architecture of the territories. The Chinese moved
into local commerce, and, by the beginning of the twentieth
century, the corner Chinese grocery store and the Chinese
restaurant had become commonplace in all the colonies.
Emancipation of the slaves provided the catalyst for the rise
of an energetic, dynamic peasantry throughout the Caribbean. A
large proportion of the ex-slaves settled in free villages, often
forming cooperatives to buy bankrupt or abandoned sugar estates.
Where they lacked the capital, they simply squatted on vacant lands
and continued the cultivation of many of the food crops that the
planters and the colonial government had exported during the days
of slavery.
The villages, although largely independent, provided a
potential labor pool that could be attracted to the plantations.
The growth of these free villages immediately after the
emancipation of the slaves was astonishing. In Jamaica, black
freeholders increased from 2,014 in 1838 to more than 7,800 in 1840
and more than 50,000 in 1859. In Barbados, where land was scarcer
and prices higher, freeholders of less than 2 hectares each
increased from 1,110 in 1844 to 3,537 in 1859. In St. Vincent,
about 8,209 persons built their own homes and bought and brought
under cultivation over 5,000 hectares between 1838 and 1857. In
Antigua, 67 free villages with 5,187 houses and 15,644 inhabitants
were established between 1833 and 1858. The free villages produced
new crops such as coconuts, rice, bananas, arrowroot, honey, and
beeswax, as well as the familiar plantation crops of sugarcane,
tobacco, coffee, cacao, citrus limes, and ground provisions.
Data as of November 1987
- Caribbean Islands-Historical Background
- Caribbean Islands-Prosperity and Government Centralization, 1974-81
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Agriculture
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands-Tourism
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: Turks and Caicos Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Chapter 7 - Strategic and Regional Security Perspectives
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands-Labor Force and Industrial Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands-Growth and Structure of the Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-A Regional Security System
- Caribbean Islands-Tourism
- Caribbean Islands-Other Third World Relations
- Caribbean Islands-SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Balance of Payments and Debt
- Caribbean Islands-HEALTH AND WELFARE
- Caribbean Islands-ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands-FOREIGN RELATIONS
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-Manufacturing
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with the Commonwealth and Others
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: St - Christopher and Nevis ST - CHRISTOPHER AND NEVIS
- Caribbean Islands-The Penal System
- Caribbean Islands-The Soviet Presence
- Caribbean Islands-Colonial Heritage HISTORICAL SETTING
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: Antigua and Barbuda ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
- Caribbean Islands-The Public Security Forces
- Caribbean Islands-Political Systems
- Caribbean Islands-EDUCATION
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with Latin American and Caribbean Countries
- Caribbean Islands-Changes in the Social Base of Political Power POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE
- Caribbean Islands-POPULATION
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with the United States
- Caribbean Islands-Livestock, Fishing, and Forestry
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-ECONOMY
- Caribbean Islands-Banking and Finance
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-NATIONAL SECURITY
- Caribbean Islands-Agricultural Sector
- Caribbean Islands-The Barbados Defence Force
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-The Police
- Caribbean Islands-The Robinson Government
- Caribbean Islands-United States Preeminence
- Caribbean Islands-External Sector
- Caribbean Islands-Energy
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-POLITICAL TRADITIONS
- Caribbean Islands-THE STRATEGIC SETTING
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands-Livestock, Fishing, and Forestry
- Caribbean Islands-Industrial Sector
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with the Commonwealth and Others
- Caribbean Islands-THE COLONIAL PERIOD
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with Communist Countries
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands-GEOGRAPHIC SETTING
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands-Macroeconomic Overview
- Caribbean Islands-Sectoral Performance
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands-Natural Gas
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Incidence of Crime
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: Barbados BARBADOS
- Caribbean Islands-The Road to Independence
- Caribbean Islands-PREFACE
- Caribbean Islands -CHAPTER 3 - TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
- Caribbean Islands-Services
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments
- Caribbean Islands-World War II
- Caribbean Islands-External Sector
- Caribbean Islands-EDUCATION
- Caribbean Islands-Foreword
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-The Postwar Strategic Vacuum
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-Regional Security Threats, 1970-81
- Caribbean Islands-Controversial Security Issues
- Caribbean Islands-HEALTH AND WELFARE
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Assistance
- Caribbean Islands-Chapter 4 - The Windward Islands and Barbados
- Caribbean Islands-ECONOMY
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Banking, Financial Services, and Currency
- Caribbean Islands-HISTORICAL SETTING
- Caribbean Islands-Education SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS, 1800-1960
- Caribbean Islands-The Post-Williams Era, 1981-86
- Caribbean Islands-The Armed Forces
- Caribbean Islands-Chapter 6 - The Northern Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with the United States
- Caribbean Islands-Sectoral Performance
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Finance and Banking
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: CAYMAN ISLANDS BRITISH DEPENDENCIES: THE CAYMAN ISLANDS AND THE TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Services
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-Land Tenure and Use
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: MONTSERRAT
- Caribbean Islands-Growth and Structure of the Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Transportation, Communications, and Electricity
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands-Petroleum and Asphalt
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Macroeconomic Overview
- Caribbean Islands-The Pre-European Population HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL SETTING
- Caribbean Islands-Macroeconomic Overview
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: The Bahamas THE BAHAMAS
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Crops
- Caribbean Islands-National Income and Public Finance
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: Dominica DOMINICA
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands-Trade and Finance
- Caribbean Islands-Chapter 1 - Regional Overview
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Labor Organizations
- Caribbean Islands-Revenues
- Caribbean Islands-THE REGIONAL SECURITY SETTING
- Caribbean Islands-Construction
- Caribbean Islands-Manufacturing
- Caribbean Islands-Agriculture
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-ISLANDS OF THE COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Political Dynamics
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with Latin American and Caribbean Countries
- Caribbean Islands-National Security
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-COUNTRY PROFILE: ANGUILLA
- Caribbean Islands-NATIONAL SECURITY
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-THE EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS
- Caribbean Islands-Balance of Payments and Debt
- Caribbean Islands-INTRODUCTION
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Relations
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Banking and Finance
- Caribbean Islands-Current Strategic Considerations
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Narcotics Crime
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Petrochemicals
- Caribbean Islands-Sectoral Performance
- Caribbean Islands-POPULATION
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-The Post-Emancipation Societies
- Caribbean Islands-The West Indies Federation, 1957-62
- Caribbean Islands-Relations with the United States, Britain, and Canada FOREIGN RELATIONS
- Caribbean Islands-Sectoral Performance
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Crops
- Caribbean Islands-National Income and Public Finance
- Caribbean Islands-Sectoral Performance
- Caribbean Islands-Precursors of Independence
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-The Criminal Justice System
- Caribbean Islands-GEOGRAPHY
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands-Banking and Finance
- Caribbean Islands-Economic Policy and Management
- Caribbean Islands-Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments
- Caribbean Islands-Political Unrest and Economic Troubles, 1970-73
- Caribbean Islands-Education
- Caribbean Islands-Labor Force and Industrial Relations
- Caribbean Islands-Chapter 5 - The Leeward Islands
- Caribbean Islands -Chapter 2 - Jamaica
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-The Governmental System GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
- Caribbean Islands-The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery
- Caribbean Islands-Macroeconomic Overview
- Caribbean Islands-The Cuban Presence
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Land Tenure and Use
- Caribbean Islands-Macroeconomic Overview
- Caribbean Islands-Role of Government
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands-The Governmental System GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
- Caribbean Islands-Economy
- Caribbean Islands-Industry
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-The Increased Role of the United States
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-Transportation and Communications
- Caribbean Islands-Country profile: Grenada GRENADA
- Caribbean Islands-Iron and Steel
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Banking and Finance
- Caribbean Islands-Postwar Federation Efforts
- Caribbean Islands-Health and Welfare
- Caribbean Islands-Government and Politics
- Caribbean Islands
- Caribbean Islands-Population
- Caribbean Islands-GEOGRAPHY
- Caribbean Islands-Industry
- Caribbean Islands-Consolidation and Economic Hardship, 1962-69
- Caribbean Islands-Patterns of Development
- Caribbean Islands-Geography
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