Chronic political instability hindered the development
of
general education throughout Bolivia's history. In the
colonial
era, education was limited to a few clergy acting as
tutors for
the sons of elite families. Little effort was made to
teach the
Indians beyond the bare necessity to convert them.
Independence
brought a series of ambitious decrees calling for
universal,
compulsory primary education and a public school system;
nonetheless, little was accomplished. By 1900 schools
existed
primarily to serve urban elites. No vocational or
agricultural
institutes existed in the country. Only 17 percent of the
adult
population was literate.
A teaching mission from Belgium arrived in the early
1900s and,
over a thirty-year period, established a foundation for
rural
primary education. In 1931 Elizardo Pérez founded a large
nuclear
school (a central school with five to eight grades) near
Lake
Titicaca. Smaller satellite schools in nearby settlements
supplemented the nuclear school's offerings. This
arrangement
became the prototype for rural education in the Andes.
Overall, however, little real expansion of educational
opportunities occurred. A 1947 law calling for an end to
illiteracy drew attention to the government's limited
capacity
for action in this area. It required that every literate
Bolivian
teach at least one other to read and write and levied
fines for
adult illiteracy. On the eve of the 1952 Revolution, less
than
one-third of the adult population was literate.
Legislation in 1956 laid the foundation for the public
education
system in force in the late 1980s. The government
established a
six-year primary cycle followed by four years of
intermediate
schooling and two years of secondary school ending with
the
baccalaureate degree. Laws in 1969 and 1973 revised the
curricula
and instituted a five-year primary cycle, theoretically
compulsory between the ages of seven and fourteen,
followed by
three years of intermediate school and four years of
secondary
education. The first two years of secondary instruction
consisted
of an integrated program that all students followed; the
second
two-year cycle permitted students to specialize in the
humanities
or one of several technical fields. All courses led to the
baccalaureate degree, which was a prerequisite for
entering the
university.
Higher education consisted of the University of Bolivia
and a
variety of public and private institutes. The University
of
Bolivia -- a consortium of eight public universities and
one
private university (the 1,500-student Bolivian Catholic
University)--was the only postsecondary school that
awarded
degrees. At least four other private institutions were
operating
without legal authorization in 1989. Other schools offered
technical training in the fine arts, commercial arts, and
technical fields, as well as in teacher training.
The University of Bolivia, which enrolled more than
100,000
students in 1989, was embroiled in a bitter conflict with
the Paz
Estenssoro government over what academic leaders feared
were
government plans to make drastic cuts in publicly financed
higher
education. The government acknowledged its plans to
promote
private institutions in an attempt to reverse a general
decline
in academic standards resulting from wide-open admission
policies. The impasse over university finances led to
student
protests in 1988, with police intervening in the country's
largest university, the 37,000-student San Andrés
University in
La Paz.
The Ministry of Education and Culture organized adult
literacy
classes. By the mid-1980s, approximately 350 centers and
more
than 2,000 teachers were dedicated to adult literacy
programs.
More than half were in the department of La Paz, where
less than
one-third of the population lived. The program had little
impact,
however; improvements in the adult literacy rate, which
stood at
75 percent in the mid-1980s, primarily resulted from
increased
primary school enrollment. From 1973 to 1987, the
percentage of
school-aged children enrolled in primary schools climbed
from 76
to 87 percent (see
table 4, Appendix).
Most educational expenditures went for operating
budgets,
especially personnel costs, leaving little for capital
programs
and expansion. Spending remained skewed in favor of the
urban
areas. Approximately 60 percent of Bolivia's 59,000
teachers were
employed in urban schools. The economic crisis that beset
the
country in the early to mid-1980s had a severe impact on
educational spending. Analysts estimated that real
education
expenditures in 1985 were less than 40 percent of the
total
recorded in 1980. Over the same period, the percentage of
the
gross domestic product
(GDP--see Glossary)
devoted to
education
dropped from 3 percent to less than 2 percent.
Although the education system recorded some progress in
enrollments in the 1970s and 1980s, serious problems
remained.
The number of secondary school students grew twice as fast
as the
population of that age-group; the university student
population
grew more than four times faster than the total population
of
eighteen- to twenty-four-year olds. Still, secondary
education
remained beyond the grasp of most Bolivians; only 35
percent of
the eligible age-group attended secondary school.
Significant
disparities also existed between male and female
enrollment
rates. Efforts to increase female attendance ran up
against the
harsh economic realities faced by poorer families who
relied on
their daughters' help with chores and childcare.
Dropout rates also remained extremely high. Only
one-third of
first graders completed the fifth grade, 20 percent
started
secondary school, 5 percent began their postsecondary
studies,
and just 1 percent received a university degree. Dropout
rates
were higher among girls and rural children. Only about 40
percent
of rural youngsters continued their education beyond the
third
grade.
Finally, Quechua- and Aymara-speaking children faced
special
problems. Bolivia had no national program of bilingual
education.
There were a few moderately successful pilot programs; in
addition, Indian teachers often translated lessons while
instructing their classes. In general, however, Spanish
was the
language of instruction at every level. Critics blamed the
absence of bilingual education for the high dropout rates
among
rural Indian schoolchildren.
|
Background | | Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR, broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups. Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and illegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians elected Movement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by the widest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rule in 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country's traditional political class and empower the nation's poor, indigenous majority. However, since taking office, his controversial strategies have exacerbated racial and economic tensions between the Amerindian populations of the Andean west and the non-indigenous communities of the eastern lowlands. In December 2009, President MORALES easily won reelection, and his party took control of the legislative branch of the government, which will allow him to continue his process of change.
|
|
Location | | Central South America, southwest of Brazil
|
|
Area(sq km) | | total: 1,098,581 sq km
land: 1,083,301 sq km
water: 15,280 sq km
|
|
Geographic coordinates | | 17 00 S, 65 00 W
|
|
Land boundaries(km) | | total: 6,940 km
border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,423 km, Chile 860 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 1,075 km
|
|
Coastline(km) | | 0 km (landlocked)
|
|
Climate | | varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
|
|
Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m
highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
|
|
Natural resources | | tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
|
|
Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.78%
permanent crops: 0.19%
other: 97.03% (2005)
|
|
Irrigated land(sq km) | | 1,320 sq km (2003)
|
|
Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 622.5 cu km (2000)
|
|
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 1.44 cu km/yr (13%/7%/81%)
per capita: 157 cu m/yr (2000)
|
|
Natural hazards | | flooding in the northeast (March-April)
|
|
Environment - current issues | | the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
|
|
Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Life Conservation
|
|
Geography - note | | landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
|
|
Population | | 9,775,246 (July 2009 est.)
|
|
Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 35.5% (male 1,767,310/female 1,701,744)
15-64 years: 60% (male 2,877,605/female 2,992,043)
65 years and over: 4.5% (male 193,196/female 243,348) (2009 est.)
|
|
Median age(years) | | total: 21.9 years
male: 21.3 years
female: 22.6 years (2009 est.)
|
|
Population growth rate(%) | | 1.772% (2009 est.)
|
|
Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 25.82 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
|
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 7.05 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
|
|
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | -1.05 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
|
Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 66% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 2.5% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
|
|
Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female
total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
|
|
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 44.66 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 48.56 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 40.57 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
|
|
Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 66.89 years
male: 64.2 years
female: 69.72 years (2009 est.)
|
|
Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 3.17 children born/woman (2009 est.)
|
|
Nationality | | noun: Bolivian(s)
adjective: Bolivian
|
|
Ethnic groups(%) | | Quechua 30%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 30%, Aymara 25%, white 15%
|
|
Religions(%) | | Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist) 5%
|
|
Languages(%) | | Spanish 60.7% (official), Quechua 21.2% (official), Aymara 14.6% (official), foreign languages 2.4%, other 1.2% (2001 census)
|
|
Country name | | conventional long form: Plurinational State of Bolivia
conventional short form: Bolivia
local long form: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia
local short form: Bolivia
|
|
Government type | | republic; note - the new constitution defines Bolivia as a "Social Unitarian State"
|
|
Capital | | name: La Paz (administrative capital)
geographic coordinates: 16 30 S, 68 09 W
time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
note: Sucre (constitutional capital)
|
|
Administrative divisions | | 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
|
|
Constitution | | 7-Feb-09
|
|
Legal system | | based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; the 2009 Constitution incorporates indigenous community justice into Bolivia's judicial system
|
|
Suffrage | | 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
|
|
Executive branch | | chief of state: President Juan Evo MORALES Ayma (since 22 January 2006); Vice President Alvaro GARCIA Linera (since 22 January 2006); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Juan Evo MORALES Ayma (since 22 January 2006); Vice President Alvaro GARCIA Linera (since 22 January 2006)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a single five-year term; election last held 6 December 2009 (next to be held in 2014); note - per the new constitution, presidents can serve for a total of two consecutive terms
election results: Juan Evo MORALES Ayma elected president; percent of vote - Juan Evo MORALES Ayma 64%; Manfred REYES VILLA 26%; Samuel DORIA MEDINA Arana 6%; Rene JOAQUINO 2%; other 2%
|
|
Legislative branch | | bicameral Plurinational Legislative Assembly or Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (36 seats; members are elected by proportional representation from party lists to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; 76 members are directly elected from their districts [7 or 8 of these are chosen from indigenous districts] and 54 are elected by proportional representation from party lists to serve five-year terms).
elections: Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 6 December 2009 (next to be held in 2015)
election results: Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MAS 26, PPB-CN 10; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MAS 89, PPB-CN 36, UN 3, AS 2
|
|
Judicial branch | | Supreme Court or Corte Suprema (judges elected by popular vote from list of candidates pre-selected by Assembly for six-year terms); District Courts (one in each department); Plurinational Constitutional Court (five primary or titulares and five alternate or suplente magistrates elected by popular vote from list of candidates pre-selected by Assembly for six-year terms; to rule on constitutional issues); Plurinational Electoral Organ (seven members elected by the Assembly and the president; one member must be of indigenous origin to six-year terms); Agro-Environmental Court (judges elected by popular vote from list of candidates pre-selected by Assembly for six-year terms; to run on agro-environmental issues); provincial and local courts (to try minor cases)
|
|
Political pressure groups and leaders | | Bolivian Workers Central or COR; Federation of Neighborhood Councils of El Alto or FEJUVE; Landless Movement or MST; National Coordinator for Change or CONALCAM; Sole Confederation of Campesino Workers of Bolivia or CSUTCB
other: Cocalero groups; indigenous organizations (including Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of Eastern Bolivia or CIDOB and National Council of Ayullus and Markas of Quollasuyu or CONAMAQ); labor unions (including the Central Bolivian Workers' Union or COB and Cooperative Miners Federation or FENCOMIN)
|
|
International organization participation | | CAN, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MIGA, MINUSTAH, MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNASUR, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
|
|
Flag description | | three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band
note: similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; in 2009, a presidential decree made it mandatory for a so-called wiphala - a square, multi-colored flag representing the country's indigenous peoples - to be used alongside the traditional flag
|
|
Economy - overview | | Bolivia is one of the poorest and least developed countries in Latin America. Following a disastrous economic crisis during the early 1980s, reforms spurred private investment, stimulated economic growth, and cut poverty rates in the 1990s. The period 2003-05 was characterized by political instability, racial tensions, and violent protests against plans - subsequently abandoned - to export Bolivia's newly discovered natural gas reserves to large northern hemisphere markets. In 2005, the government passed a controversial hydrocarbons law that imposed significantly higher royalties and required foreign firms then operating under risk-sharing contracts to surrender all production to the state energy company. In early 2008, higher earnings for mining and hydrocarbons exports pushed the current account surplus to 9.4% of GDP and the government's higher tax take produced a fiscal surplus after years of large deficits. Private investment as a share of GDP, however, remains among the lowest in Latin America, and inflation remained at double-digit levels in 2008. The decline in commodity prices in late 2008, the lack of foreign investment in the mining and hydrocarbon sectors, and the suspension of trade benefits with the United States will pose challenges for the Bolivian economy in 2009.
|
|
GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $43.38 billion (2008 est.)
$40.88 billion (2007 est.)
$39.08 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
|
GDP (official exchange rate) | | $16.6 billion (2008 est.)
|
|
GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 6.1% (2008 est.)
4.6% (2007 est.)
4.8% (2006 est.)
|
|
GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $4,500 (2008 est.)
$4,300 (2007 est.)
$4,200 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
|
GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 11.3%
industry: 36.9%
services: 51.8% (2008 est.)
|
|
Labor force | | 4.454 million (2008 est.)
|
|
Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 40%
industry: 17%
services: 43% (2006 est.)
|
|
Unemployment rate(%) | | 7.5% (2008 est.)
7.5% (2007 est.)
note: data are for urban areas; widespread underemployment
|
|
Population below poverty line(%) | | 60% (2006 est.)
|
|
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: 0.5%
highest 10%: 44.1% (2005)
|
|
Distribution of family income - Gini index | | 59.2 (2006)
44.7 (1999)
|
|
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 18% of GDP (2008 est.)
|
|
Budget | | revenues: $8.039 billion
expenditures: $7.5 billion (2008 est.)
|
|
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 14% (2008 est.)
8.7% (2007 est.)
|
|
Stock of money | | $3.998 billion (31 December 2008)
$3.032 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Stock of quasi money | | $6.339 billion (31 December 2008)
$4.729 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Stock of domestic credit | | $5.433 billion (31 December 2008)
$4.759 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Market value of publicly traded shares | | $NA (31 December 2008)
$2.263 billion (31 December 2007)
$2.223 billion (31 December 2006)
|
|
Economic aid - recipient | | $582.9 million (2005 est.)
|
|
Public debt(% of GDP) | | 45.2% of GDP (2008 est.)
46.3% of GDP (2007 est.)
|
|
Agriculture - products | | soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
|
|
Industries | | mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
|
|
Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 10.6% (2008 est.)
|
|
Current account balance | | $2.015 billion (2008 est.)
$1.984 billion (2007 est.)
|
|
Exports | | $6.448 billion (2008 est.)
$4.49 billion (2007 est.)
|
|
Exports - commodities(%) | | natural gas, soybeans and soy products, crude petroleum, zinc ore, tin
|
|
Exports - partners(%) | | Brazil 60.1%, US 8.3%, Japan 4.1% (2008)
|
|
Imports | | $4.641 billion (2008 est.)
$3.24 billion (2007 est.)
|
|
Imports - commodities(%) | | petroleum products, plastics, paper, aircraft and aircraft parts, prepared foods, automobiles, insecticides, soybeans
|
|
Imports - partners(%) | | Brazil 26.7%, Argentina 16.3%, US 10.5%, Chile 9.5%, Peru 7.1%, China 4.8% (2008)
|
|
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $7.722 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$5.318 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
|
Debt - external | | $5.931 billion (31 December 2008)
$5.385 billion (31 December 2007)
|
|
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $5.998 billion (31 December 2008)
|
|
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $NA
|
|
Exchange rates | | bolivianos (BOB) per US dollar - 7.253 (2008 est.), 7.8616 (2007), 8.0159 (2006), 8.0661 (2005), 7.9363 (2004)
|
|
Currency (code) | | boliviano (BOB)
|
|
Telephones - main lines in use | | 690,000 (2008)
|
|
Telephones - mobile cellular | | 4.83 million (2008)
|
|
Telephone system | | general assessment: privatization begun in 1995; reliability has steadily improved; new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities; mobile-cellular telephone use expanding rapidly; fixed-line teledensity of 7 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular telephone density slighly exceeds 50 per 100 persons
domestic: primary trunk system, which is being expanded, employs digital microwave radio relay; some areas are served by fiber-optic cable; mobile cellular systems are being expanded
international: country code - 591; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2008)
|
|
Internet country code | | .bo
|
|
Internet users | | 1 million (2008)
|
|
Airports | | 952 (2009)
|
|
Pipelines(km) | | gas 4,883 km; liquid petroleum gas 47 km; oil 2,475 km; refined products 1,589 km (2008)
|
|
Roadways(km) | | total: 62,479 km
paved: 3,749 km
unpaved: 58,730 km (2004)
|
|
Ports and terminals | | Puerto Aguirre (inland port on the Paraguay/Parana waterway at the Bolivia/Brazil border); Bolivia has free port privileges in maritime ports in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay
|
|
Military branches | | Bolivian Armed Forces: Bolivian Army (Ejercito Boliviano, EB), Bolivian Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, FNB; includes marines), Bolivian Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana, FAB) (2009)
|
|
Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 18-49 years of age for 12-month compulsory military service; when annual number of volunteers falls short of goal, compulsory recruitment is effected, including conscription of boys as young as 14; 15-19 years of age for voluntary premilitary service, provides exemption from further military service (2009)
|
|
Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 2,295,746
females age 16-49: 2,366,828 (2008 est.)
|
|
Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 1,666,697
females age 16-49: 1,906,396 (2009 est.)
|
|
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 108,304
female: 104,882 (2009 est.)
|
|
Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 1.9% of GDP (2006)
|
|
Disputes - international | | Chile and Peru rebuff Bolivia's reactivated claim to restore the Atacama corridor, ceded to Chile in 1884, but Chile offers instead unrestricted but not sovereign maritime access through Chile for Bolivian natural gas and other commodities; an accord placed the long-disputed Isla Suarez/Ilha de Guajara-Mirim, a fluvial island on the Rio Mamore, under Bolivian administration in 1958, but sovereignty remains in dispute
|
|
Electricity - production(kWh) | | 5.495 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 44.4%
hydro: 54%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.5% (2001)
|
|
Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 4.665 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
|
Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 51,360 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 60,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
|
Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 10,950 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
|
Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 6,172 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
|
Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 465 million bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 14.2 billion cu m (2008 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 2.41 billion cu m (2008 est.)
|
|
Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 11.79 billion cu m (2008)
|
|
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 750.4 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 0.2% (2007 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 8,100 (2007 est.)
|
|
HIV/AIDS - deaths | | fewer than 500 (2007 est.)
|
|
Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and yellow fever
water contact disease: leptospirosis (2009)
|
|
Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 86.7%
male: 93.1%
female: 80.7% (2001 census)
|
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 6.4% of GDP (2003)
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