IN LATE 1988, ANGOLAN SOCIETY still bore the scars
inflicted by
five centuries of colonial rule and by a
fourteen-year-long
insurgency that had drained the national treasury and
frustrated
the government's efforts to implement Marxist-Leninist
policies.
Complicating the study of contemporary Angolan society was
the
limited information available to researchers. During the
period of
turmoil that began in 1975, few Western observers had been
allowed
access to government-controlled areas. Furthermore, the
Angolan
press was closely controlled by the government and prone
to
propagandistic reporting; antigovernment sources were
equally
slanted.
Despite these limitations, certain features of Angolan
society
could be outlined, if not clearly discerned. In 1988
Angola had an
estimated population of 8.2 million, the great majority of
whom
lived in the western half of the country. Nearly 7 million
Angolans
lived in government-controlled areas. The remainder, an
estimated
1.25 million, resided in rebel-held regions. Most Angolans
inhabited rural areas, although there had been a
significant trend
since the 1970s toward urban growth. By 1988 about a third
of the
population was living in towns and cities. Most of the
urban areas
were in the more populous western half of the country.
Scholars often divided the population into a number of
ethnolinguistic categories, but in many cases these
categories had
been devised by others, both Portuguese and Africans.
Physical
boundaries based on these categories had been established
by the
Portuguese for use in census taking and related
activities.
Although they acquired a certain meaning for the people
included in
them in the course of the colonial period and during the
nationalist struggle, these categories were neither fixed
nor
internally homogeneous, and they were subject to change
under
shifting historical conditions.
The three largest categories--the Ovimbundu, the
Mbundu, and
the Bakongo--together constituted nearly three-quarters of
Angola's
population. Mestiços (persons of mixed European and
African
ancestry; see Glossary), at less than 2 percent of the
population,
had played an important role in the ruling party since
independence, mostly because they were fairly well
educated in a
society in which educated persons were relatively few.
They had,
however, been the target of much resentment, a consequence
of their
former identification with the Portuguese and, often, of
their
expressions of superiority to Africans. The regime of José
Eduardo
dos Santos, who became president in 1979, sought to
dissipate this
resentment by replacing high-ranking mestiço party
and
government officials with individuals of other ethnic
backgrounds.
Little is known of the actual workings of indigenous
social
systems as modified during the colonial period. The most
persistent
of groupings and institutions, such as clans or tribes,
were based
on descent from a common ancestor, in most cases a common
female
ancestor, and were traced through females. (With rare
exceptions,
however, authority lay in male hands.) As enduring as
these had
been, such groupings and institutions were showing signs
of losing
their significance toward the end of the colonial era. In
many
instances, they were further disrupted by the devastating
effects
of the insurgency waged by the National Union for the
Total
Independence of Angola (União Nacional para a
Independência Total
de Angola -- UNITA), which caused massive displacement of
much of
the rural population, particularly from the eastern
provinces.
The Portuguese-imposed national structure was almost
totally
destroyed by the Marxist-Leninist institutions established
after
independence in 1975. There have been significant changes,
however,
in the ideology of the country's leaders in the mid- to
late 1980s.
Although the ruling party, the Popular Movement for the
Liberation
of Angola-Workers' Party (Movimento Popular de Libertação
de
Angola-Partido de Trabalho--MPLA-PT), inveighed against
what it
called petit bourgeois tendencies, its leaders accepted
private
enterprise and a more tolerant attitude toward personal
gain as
means of coping with the country's massive economic and
administrative problems.
Despite its opposition to religion, the
Marxist-Leninist
government did not prohibit the existence of religious
institutions. Many Angolans were Roman Catholics or
Protestants,
and missionaries had been instrumental in providing
education to
Angolans during the colonial era when schooling had been
largely
denied to Africans by the colonial authorities.
Nonetheless, the
government was suspicious of large organized groups that
could
threaten its stability, particularly the Roman Catholic
Church,
because it had not overtly opposed Portuguese colonialism.
There
was less hostility toward the Protestant churches, which
had not
maintained particularly close ties to the Portuguese
colonial
authorities. Indigenous religions continued to influence
the lives
of a large segment of the population, even though some of
these
people also belonged to Christian denominations.
In the late 1980s, there was a tremendous need for
educated
Angolans in both the economic and the governmental
sectors,
especially in technical fields. Although the government
had made
steady progress in providing education at the primary and
secondary
school levels, there were still severe teacher shortages,
mostly in
rural areas, and vast problems in reaching those children
living in
areas where UNITA military actions were most frequent.
There were also shortages of trained Angolan personnel
in the
health field, which had forced the government to bring in
hundreds
of foreign health care personnel to meet the needs of the
population as well as to train Angolans in health care
practices.
Nonetheless, the high infant mortality rate and
proliferation of
diseases, exacerbated by poor sanitation and malnutrition,
attested
to the government's insufficient progress in this area.
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Background | | Angola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but fighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS held legislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising to hold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidential poll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
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Location | | Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Area(sq km) | | total: 1,246,700 sq km
land: 1,246,700 sq km
water: 0 sq km
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Geographic coordinates | | 12 30 S, 18 30 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 5,198 km
border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,511 km (of which 225 km is the boundary of discontiguous Cabinda Province), Republic of the Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zambia 1,110 km
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Coastline(km) | | 1,600 km
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Climate | | semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Morro de Moco 2,620 m
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Natural resources | | petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium
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Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.65%
permanent crops: 0.23%
other: 97.12% (2005)
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Irrigated land(sq km) | | 800 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 184 cu km (1987)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 0.35 cu km/yr (23%/17%/60%)
per capita: 22 cu m/yr (2000)
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Natural hazards | | locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau
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Environment - current issues | | overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
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Geography - note | | the province of Cabinda is an exclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Population | | 12,799,293 (July 2009 est.)
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 43.5% (male 2,812,359/female 2,759,047)
15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,496,726/female 3,382,440)
65 years and over: 2.7% (male 153,678/female 195,043) (2009 est.)
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Median age(years) | | total: 18 years
male: 18 years
female: 18 years (2009 est.)
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Population growth rate(%) | | 2.095% (2009 est.)
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Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 43.69 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 24.08 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
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Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | 1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 57% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 4.4% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female
total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 180.21 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 192.24 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 167.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 38.2 years
male: 37.24 years
female: 39.22 years (2009 est.)
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Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 6.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Angolan(s)
adjective: Angolan
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
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Religions(%) | | indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
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Languages(%) | | Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
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Country name | | conventional long form: Republic of Angola
conventional short form: Angola
local long form: Republica de Angola
local short form: Angola
former: People's Republic of Angola
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Government type | | republic; multiparty presidential regime
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Capital | | name: Luanda
geographic coordinates: 8 50 S, 13 14 E
time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
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Administrative divisions | | 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
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Constitution | | adopted by People's Assembly 25 August 1992
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Legal system | | based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
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Executive branch | | chief of state: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); Antonio Paulo KASSOMA was named prime minister by MPLA on 26 September 2008
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
elections: president elected by universal ballot for a five-year term (eligible for a second consecutive or discontinuous term) under the 1992 constitution; President DOS SANTOS was selected by the party to take over after the death of former President Augustino NETO(1979) under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections 29-30 September 1992 (next were to be held in September 2009 but have been postponed)
election results: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS 49.6%, Jonas SAVIMBI 40.1%, making a run-off election necessary; the run-off was never held leaving DOS SANTOS in his current position as the president
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Legislative branch | | unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 5-6 September 2008 (next to be held in September 2012)
election results: percent of vote by party - MPLA 81.6%, UNITA 10.4%, PRS 3.2%, ND 1.2%, FNLA 1.1%, other 2.5%; seats by party - MPLA 191, UNITA 16, PRS 8, FNLA 3, ND 2
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Judicial branch | | Supreme Court and separate provincial courts (judges are appointed by the president)
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO, Antonio Bento BEMBE]
note: FLEC's small-scale armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province persists despite the signing of a peace accord with the government in August 2006
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International organization participation | | ACP, AfDB, AU, CPLP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS (observer), OPEC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
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Flag description | | two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
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Economy - overview | | Angola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, which has taken advantage of high international oil prices. Oil production and its supporting activities contribute about 85% of GDP. Increased oil production supported growth averaging more than 15% per year from 2004 to 2007. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth in construction and agriculture as well. Much of the country's infrastructure is still damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-long civil war. Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land mines still mar the countryside even though an apparently durable peace was established after the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI in February 2002. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for most of the people, but half of the country's food must still be imported. In 2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit, since increased to $7 billion, from China to rebuild Angola's public infrastructure, and several large-scale projects were completed in 2006. Angola also has large credit lines from Brazil, Portugal, Germany, Spain, and the EU. The central bank in 2003 implemented an exchange rate stabilization program using foreign exchange reserves to buy kwanzas out of circulation. This policy became more sustainable in 2005 because of strong oil export earnings; it has significantly reduced inflation. Although consumer inflation declined from 325% in 2000 to under 13% in 2008, the stabilization policy has put pressure on international net liquidity. Angola became a member of OPEC in late 2006 and in late 2007 was assigned a production quota of 1.9 million barrels a day, somewhat less than the 2-2.5 million bbl Angola's government had wanted. To fully take advantage of its rich national resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement government reforms, increase transparency, and reduce corruption. The government has rejected a formal IMF monitored program, although it continues Article IV consultations and ad hoc cooperation. Corruption, especially in the extractive sectors, and the negative effects of large inflows of foreign exchange, are major challenges facing Angola.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $112.8 billion (2008 est.)
$100.5 billion (2007 est.)
$82.94 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate) | | $84.95 billion (2008 est.)
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GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 12.3% (2008 est.)
21.1% (2007 est.)
18.6% (2006 est.)
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GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $9,000 (2008 est.)
$8,200 (2007 est.)
$6,900 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 9.2%
industry: 65.8%
services: 24.6% (2008 est.)
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Labor force | | 7.569 million (2008 est.)
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Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 85%
industry and services: 15% (2003 est.)
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Unemployment rate(%) | | NA
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Population below poverty line(%) | | 40.5% (2006 est.)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 9% of GDP (2008 est.)
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Budget | | revenues: $28.99 billion
expenditures: $21.44 billion (2008 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 12.5% (2008 est.)
12.2% (2007 est.)
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Stock of money | | $8.446 billion (31 December 2008)
$4.153 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money | | $10.41 billion (31 December 2008)
$7.216 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of domestic credit | | $7.893 billion (31 December 2008)
$1.166 billion (31 December 2007)
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Economic aid - recipient | | $441.8 million (2005)
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Public debt(% of GDP) | | 15.5% of GDP (2008 est.)
12% of GDP (2007 est.)
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Agriculture - products | | bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish
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Industries | | petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar; textiles; ship repair
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Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 14.3% (2008 est.)
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Current account balance | | $17.11 billion (2008 est.)
$9.402 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports | | $66.3 billion (2008 est.)
$44.4 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, diamonds, refined petroleum products, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
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Exports - partners(%) | | China 33%, US 28.7%, France 6%, South Africa 4.6%, Canada 4.1% (2008)
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Imports | | $17.08 billion (2008 est.)
$13.66 billion (2007 est.)
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Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles, military goods
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Imports - partners(%) | | Portugal 17.6%, China 15.7%, US 11.3%, Brazil 7.6%, South Korea 6.8%, South Africa 4.8% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $18.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$11.2 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Debt - external | | $14.09 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$8.357 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $16.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$14.51 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $2.477 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
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Exchange rates | | kwanza (AOA) per US dollar - 75.023 (2008 est.), 76.6 (2007), 80.4 (2006), 88.6 (2005), 83.541 (2004)
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Currency (code) | | kwanza (AOA)
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 114,300 (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 6.773 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: system inadequate; fewer than one fixed-line per 100 persons; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density exceeded 50 telephones per 100 persons in 2008
domestic: state-owned telecom had monopoly for fixed-lines until 2005; demand outstripped capacity, prices were high, and services poor; Telecom Namibia, through an Angolan company, became the first private licensed operator in Angola's fixed-line telephone network; Angola Telecom established mobile-cellular service in Luanda in 1993 and the network has been extended to larger towns; a privately-owned, mobile-cellular service provider began operations in 2001
international: country code - 244; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 29 (2008)
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Internet country code | | .ao
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Internet users | | 550,000 (2008)
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Airports | | 192 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | gas 2 km; oil 87 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 51,429 km
paved: 5,349 km
unpaved: 46,080 km (2001)
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Ports and terminals | | Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Namibe
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Military branches | | Angolan Armed Forces (FAA): Army, Navy (Marinha de Guerra Angola, MGA), Angolan National Air Force (Forca Aerea Nacional Angolana, FANA) (2009)
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Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 22-24 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years; Angolan citizenship required (2009)
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Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 2,856,492
females age 16-49: 2,755,864 (2008 est.)
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Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 1,467,833
females age 16-49: 1,411,468 (2009 est.)
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Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 146,738
female: 143,478 (2009 est.)
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Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.7% of GDP (2006)
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Disputes - international | | Cabindan separatists continue to return to the Angolan exclave from exile in neighboring states and Europe since the 2006 ceasefire and peace agreement
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Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 12,615 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
IDPs: 61,700 (27-year civil war ending in 2002; 4 million IDPs already have returned) (2007)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 3.722 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 36.4%
hydro: 63.6%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
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Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 3.173 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
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Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
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Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 2.015 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 64,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 1.407 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 28,090 bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 9.04 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
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Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
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Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 269.8 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 2.1% (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 190,000 (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - deaths | | 11,000 (2007 est.)
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Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: very high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2009)
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 67.4%
male: 82.9%
female: 54.2% (2001 est.)
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Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 2.4% of GDP (2005)
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![[GIF]](/images/frd/cs/angola/ao02_00a.gif)
