Bantu languages have been categorized by scholars into
a number
of sets of related tongues. Some of the languages in any
set may be
more or less mutually intelligible, especially in the
areas where
speakers of a dialect of one language have had sustained
contact
with speakers of a dialect of another language. Given the
mobility
and interpenetration of communities of Bantu speakers over
the
centuries, transitional languages--for example, those that
share
characteristics of two tongues--developed in areas between
these
communities. Frequently, the languages of a set,
particularly those
with many widely distributed speakers, would be divided
into
several dialects. In principle, dialects of the same
language are
considered mutually intelligible, although they are not
always so
in fact.
Language alone does not define an ethnic group. On the
one
hand, a set of communities lacking mutually intelligible
dialects
may for one reason or another come to share a sense of
identity in
any given historical period. On the other hand, groups
sharing a
common language or mutually intelligible ones do not
necessarily
constitute a single group. Thus the Suku--most of them in
Zaire but
some in Angola -- had a language mutually intelligible
with at
least some dialects of the Bakongo. However, their
historical
experience, including a period of domination by Lunda
speakers,
made the Suku a separate group.
Although common language and culture do not
automatically make
a common identity, they provide a framework within which
such an
identity can be forged, given other historical experience.
Insofar
as common culture implies a set of common perceptions of
the way
the world works, it permits individuals and groups sharing
it to
communicate more easily with one another than with those
who lack
that culture. However, most Angolan groups had, as part of
that
common culture, the experience and expectation of
political
fragmentation and intergroup rivalry. That is, because one
community shared language and culture with another,
political unity
or even neutrality did not follow, nor did either
community assume
that it should. With the exception of the Bakongo and the
Lunda, no
group had experienced a political cohesion that
transcended smaller
political units (chiefdoms or, at best, small kingdoms).
In the
Bakongo case, the early Kongo Kingdom, encompassing most
Kikongospeaking communities, had given way by the eighteenth
century to
politically fragmented entities. In the Lunda case, the
empire had
been so far-flung and internal conflict had become so
great by the
nineteenth century that political cohesion was limited
(see Kongo Kingdom;
Lunda and Chokwe Kingdoms
, ch. 1).
Very often, the name by which a people has come to be
known was
given them by outsiders. For example, the name "Mbundu"
was first
used by the Bakongo. Until such naming, and sometimes long
after,
the various communities or sections of a set sharing a
language and
culture were likely to call themselves by other terms, and
even
when they came to use the all-encompassing name, they
tended to
reserve it for a limited number of situations. In
virtually all
colonial territories, Angola included, the naming process
and the
tendency to treat the named people as a discrete entity
distinct
from all others became pervasive. The process was carried
out by
the colonial authorities--sometimes with the help of
scholars and
missionaries--as part of the effort to understand, deal
with, and
control local populations. Among other things, the
Portuguese
tended to treat smaller, essentially autonomous groups as
parts of
larger entities. As time went on, these populations,
particularly
the more educated among them, seized upon these names and
the
communities presumably covered by them as a basis for
organizing to
improve their status and later for nationalist agitation.
Among the
first to do so were mestiços in the Luanda area.
Although
most spoke Portuguese and had a Portuguese male ancestor
in their
genealogies, the mestiços often spoke Kimbundu as a
home
language. It is they who, in time, initiated the
development of a
common Mbundu identity.
In general, then, the development of ethnic
consciousness in a
group encompassing a large number of communities reflected
shifts
from the identification of individuals with small-scale
units to at
least partial identification with larger entities and from
relatively porous boundaries between such entities to less
permeable ones. But the fact that these larger groups were
the
precipitates of relatively recent historical conditions
suggests
that they were not permanently fixed. Changes in these
conditions
could lead to the dissolution of the boundaries and to
group
formation on bases other than ethnicity.
In any case, ethnic identities are rarely exclusive;
identification with other entities, new or old, also
occurs in
certain situations because not all sections of a large
ethnic group
have identical interests. It remained likely that earlier
identities would be appealed to in some situations or that
new
cleavages would surface in others. For example, descent
groups or
local communities were often involved in competitive
relations in
the precolonial or colonial eras, and the conditions
similar to
those giving rise to such competition might still prevail
in some
areas. In other contexts, younger members of an ethnic
group may
consider their interests to be different from those of
their
elders, or a split between urban and rural sections of an
ethnic
entity may become salient.
In Angola, the displacement of hundreds of thousands of
people,
especially in the late 1980s, had significant
repercussions on
ethnic identification. For example, many of those forced
to abandon
rural areas and traditional ethnic communities for urban
dwellings
no longer engaged in agricultural activities and the small
town
life that defined their communities. Instead, they were
forced to
become urban laborers in ethnically mixed surroundings.
Many were
compelled by their new circumstances to learn new
languages and
give up traditional life-styles in order to survive in
their new
environment.
Background | | Angola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but fighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS held legislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising to hold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidential poll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
|
Location | | Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
Area(sq km) | | total: 1,246,700 sq km land: 1,246,700 sq km water: 0 sq km
|
Geographic coordinates | | 12 30 S, 18 30 E
|
Land boundaries(km) | | total: 5,198 km border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,511 km (of which 225 km is the boundary of discontiguous Cabinda Province), Republic of the Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zambia 1,110 km
|
Coastline(km) | | 1,600 km
|
Climate | | semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)
|
Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Morro de Moco 2,620 m
|
Natural resources | | petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium
|
Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.65% permanent crops: 0.23% other: 97.12% (2005)
|
Irrigated land(sq km) | | 800 sq km (2003)
|
Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 184 cu km (1987)
|
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 0.35 cu km/yr (23%/17%/60%) per capita: 22 cu m/yr (2000)
|
Natural hazards | | locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau
|
Environment - current issues | | overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
|
Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
|
Geography - note | | the province of Cabinda is an exclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
Population | | 12,799,293 (July 2009 est.)
|
Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 43.5% (male 2,812,359/female 2,759,047) 15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,496,726/female 3,382,440) 65 years and over: 2.7% (male 153,678/female 195,043) (2009 est.)
|
Median age(years) | | total: 18 years male: 18 years female: 18 years (2009 est.)
|
Population growth rate(%) | | 2.095% (2009 est.)
|
Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 43.69 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 24.08 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
|
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | 1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 57% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 4.4% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
|
Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
|
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 180.21 deaths/1,000 live births male: 192.24 deaths/1,000 live births female: 167.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
|
Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 38.2 years male: 37.24 years female: 39.22 years (2009 est.)
|
Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 6.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
|
Nationality | | noun: Angolan(s) adjective: Angolan
|
Ethnic groups(%) | | Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
|
Religions(%) | | indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
|
Languages(%) | | Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
|
Country name | | conventional long form: Republic of Angola conventional short form: Angola local long form: Republica de Angola local short form: Angola former: People's Republic of Angola
|
Government type | | republic; multiparty presidential regime
|
Capital | | name: Luanda geographic coordinates: 8 50 S, 13 14 E time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
|
Administrative divisions | | 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
|
Constitution | | adopted by People's Assembly 25 August 1992
|
Legal system | | based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
|
Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
|
Executive branch | | chief of state: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); Antonio Paulo KASSOMA was named prime minister by MPLA on 26 September 2008 cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections: president elected by universal ballot for a five-year term (eligible for a second consecutive or discontinuous term) under the 1992 constitution; President DOS SANTOS was selected by the party to take over after the death of former President Augustino NETO(1979) under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections 29-30 September 1992 (next were to be held in September 2009 but have been postponed) election results: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS 49.6%, Jonas SAVIMBI 40.1%, making a run-off election necessary; the run-off was never held leaving DOS SANTOS in his current position as the president
|
Legislative branch | | unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 5-6 September 2008 (next to be held in September 2012) election results: percent of vote by party - MPLA 81.6%, UNITA 10.4%, PRS 3.2%, ND 1.2%, FNLA 1.1%, other 2.5%; seats by party - MPLA 191, UNITA 16, PRS 8, FNLA 3, ND 2
|
Judicial branch | | Supreme Court and separate provincial courts (judges are appointed by the president)
|
Political pressure groups and leaders | | Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO, Antonio Bento BEMBE] note: FLEC's small-scale armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province persists despite the signing of a peace accord with the government in August 2006
|
International organization participation | | ACP, AfDB, AU, CPLP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS (observer), OPEC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
|
Flag description | | two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
|
Economy - overview | | Angola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, which has taken advantage of high international oil prices. Oil production and its supporting activities contribute about 85% of GDP. Increased oil production supported growth averaging more than 15% per year from 2004 to 2007. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth in construction and agriculture as well. Much of the country's infrastructure is still damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-long civil war. Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land mines still mar the countryside even though an apparently durable peace was established after the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI in February 2002. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for most of the people, but half of the country's food must still be imported. In 2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit, since increased to $7 billion, from China to rebuild Angola's public infrastructure, and several large-scale projects were completed in 2006. Angola also has large credit lines from Brazil, Portugal, Germany, Spain, and the EU. The central bank in 2003 implemented an exchange rate stabilization program using foreign exchange reserves to buy kwanzas out of circulation. This policy became more sustainable in 2005 because of strong oil export earnings; it has significantly reduced inflation. Although consumer inflation declined from 325% in 2000 to under 13% in 2008, the stabilization policy has put pressure on international net liquidity. Angola became a member of OPEC in late 2006 and in late 2007 was assigned a production quota of 1.9 million barrels a day, somewhat less than the 2-2.5 million bbl Angola's government had wanted. To fully take advantage of its rich national resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement government reforms, increase transparency, and reduce corruption. The government has rejected a formal IMF monitored program, although it continues Article IV consultations and ad hoc cooperation. Corruption, especially in the extractive sectors, and the negative effects of large inflows of foreign exchange, are major challenges facing Angola.
|
GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $112.8 billion (2008 est.) $100.5 billion (2007 est.) $82.94 billion (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
GDP (official exchange rate) | | $84.95 billion (2008 est.)
|
GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 12.3% (2008 est.) 21.1% (2007 est.) 18.6% (2006 est.)
|
GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $9,000 (2008 est.) $8,200 (2007 est.) $6,900 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 9.2% industry: 65.8% services: 24.6% (2008 est.)
|
Labor force | | 7.569 million (2008 est.)
|
Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 85% industry and services: 15% (2003 est.)
|
Unemployment rate(%) | | NA
|
Population below poverty line(%) | | 40.5% (2006 est.)
|
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
|
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 9% of GDP (2008 est.)
|
Budget | | revenues: $28.99 billion expenditures: $21.44 billion (2008 est.)
|
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 12.5% (2008 est.) 12.2% (2007 est.)
|
Stock of money | | $8.446 billion (31 December 2008) $4.153 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Stock of quasi money | | $10.41 billion (31 December 2008) $7.216 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Stock of domestic credit | | $7.893 billion (31 December 2008) $1.166 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Economic aid - recipient | | $441.8 million (2005)
|
Public debt(% of GDP) | | 15.5% of GDP (2008 est.) 12% of GDP (2007 est.)
|
Agriculture - products | | bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish
|
Industries | | petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar; textiles; ship repair
|
Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 14.3% (2008 est.)
|
Current account balance | | $17.11 billion (2008 est.) $9.402 billion (2007 est.)
|
Exports | | $66.3 billion (2008 est.) $44.4 billion (2007 est.)
|
Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, diamonds, refined petroleum products, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
|
Exports - partners(%) | | China 33%, US 28.7%, France 6%, South Africa 4.6%, Canada 4.1% (2008)
|
Imports | | $17.08 billion (2008 est.) $13.66 billion (2007 est.)
|
Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles, military goods
|
Imports - partners(%) | | Portugal 17.6%, China 15.7%, US 11.3%, Brazil 7.6%, South Korea 6.8%, South Africa 4.8% (2008)
|
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $18.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $11.2 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Debt - external | | $14.09 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $8.357 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $16.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $14.51 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $2.477 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
|
Exchange rates | | kwanza (AOA) per US dollar - 75.023 (2008 est.), 76.6 (2007), 80.4 (2006), 88.6 (2005), 83.541 (2004)
|
Currency (code) | | kwanza (AOA)
|
Telephones - main lines in use | | 114,300 (2008)
|
Telephones - mobile cellular | | 6.773 million (2008)
|
Telephone system | | general assessment: system inadequate; fewer than one fixed-line per 100 persons; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density exceeded 50 telephones per 100 persons in 2008 domestic: state-owned telecom had monopoly for fixed-lines until 2005; demand outstripped capacity, prices were high, and services poor; Telecom Namibia, through an Angolan company, became the first private licensed operator in Angola's fixed-line telephone network; Angola Telecom established mobile-cellular service in Luanda in 1993 and the network has been extended to larger towns; a privately-owned, mobile-cellular service provider began operations in 2001 international: country code - 244; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 29 (2008)
|
Internet country code | | .ao
|
Internet users | | 550,000 (2008)
|
Airports | | 192 (2009)
|
Pipelines(km) | | gas 2 km; oil 87 km (2008)
|
Roadways(km) | | total: 51,429 km paved: 5,349 km unpaved: 46,080 km (2001)
|
Ports and terminals | | Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Namibe
|
Military branches | | Angolan Armed Forces (FAA): Army, Navy (Marinha de Guerra Angola, MGA), Angolan National Air Force (Forca Aerea Nacional Angolana, FANA) (2009)
|
Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 22-24 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years; Angolan citizenship required (2009)
|
Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 2,856,492 females age 16-49: 2,755,864 (2008 est.)
|
Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 1,467,833 females age 16-49: 1,411,468 (2009 est.)
|
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 146,738 female: 143,478 (2009 est.)
|
Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.7% of GDP (2006)
|
Disputes - international | | Cabindan separatists continue to return to the Angolan exclave from exile in neighboring states and Europe since the 2006 ceasefire and peace agreement
|
Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 12,615 (Democratic Republic of Congo) IDPs: 61,700 (27-year civil war ending in 2002; 4 million IDPs already have returned) (2007)
|
Electricity - production(kWh) | | 3.722 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 36.4% hydro: 63.6% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
|
Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 3.173 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 2.015 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 64,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 1.407 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 28,090 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 9.04 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
|
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 269.8 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
|
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 2.1% (2007 est.)
|
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 190,000 (2007 est.)
|
HIV/AIDS - deaths | | 11,000 (2007 est.)
|
Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: very high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2009)
|
Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 67.4% male: 82.9% female: 54.2% (2001 est.)
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 2.4% of GDP (2005)
|