The crucial social units in rural systems were villages
(or
other forms of local community) and groups based on common
descent,
actual or putative. These were basic entities, even if
subject to
change in form and function in the period preceding the
Portuguese
incursion and during the centuries when Portugal exercised
only
indirect influence in the interior. Throughout these
hundreds of
years, changes in the structure of rural political and
economic
systems had their impact on rural communities and kin
groups, but
rural community organization and the organization of kin
groups,
often linked, remained the most significant elements in
the lives
of ordinary Africans.
In general, the connection between a rural community
and a
descent group (or some other kin-based set of persons) lay
in the
fact that the core of each community consisted of a
descent group
of some kind. Others in the community were tied to the
members of
the group by marriage or, in an earlier period, by a slave
or
client relationship, the effects of which may well have
survived
the formal abolition of slavery, as they have elsewhere.
Typically,
neighboring villages were tied together either because
their core
groups were made up of members of related descent groups
(or
different segments of a larger descent group) or, in some
cases, by
fairly frequent intermarriage among members of a limited
set of
villages.
Traditionally, descent groups in Angola are
matrilineal; that
is, they include all persons descended from a common
female
ancestor through females, although the individuals holding
authority are, with rare exceptions, males. In some cases,
junior
males inherit from (or succeed to a position held by)
older
brothers; in others, males inherit from their mother's
brother.
Patrilineal descent groups, whose members are descended
from a male
ancestor through males, apparently have occurred in only a
few
groups in Angola and have been reported only in
conjunction with
matrilineal groups, a comparatively rare phenomenon
referred to as
a double descent system.
It must be emphasized that even where double descent
systems
did not exist, kin traced through the father were
important as
individuals in systems in which group formation was based
on
matrilineal descent. In some cases, the Bakongo for
example, an
individual would be tied through his father to the
latter's
matrilineage, appropriate members of which have an
important say in
aspects of that individual's life.
Broadly speaking, matrilineal descent groups alone have
been
reported for the Bakongo (but are well described only for
some of
the Zairian Bakongo), the Mbundu, the Chokwe, and the
Ovambo, but
their occurrence is probable elsewhere. A double descent
system has
been reported for Angola's largest ethnolinguistic group,
the
Ovimbundu, and might also be found among some of the
southern
groups.
The structure and workings of the double descent system
of the
Ovimbundu had not been adequately described as of 1988. In
any
case, ethnographic studies made in the middle of the
twentieth
century suggest that patrilineal groups as such (as
opposed to
links with the father and some of his kin) had virtually
disappeared and that matrilineal groups had, by and large,
lost
most of their significance as a result of major changes in
patterns
of economic activity.
Descent groups vary in size, degree of localization,
function,
and degree of internal segmentation. In the kinds of
groups
commonly called clans, the links between a putative common
ancestor
and the living cannot be traced, and no effort is made to
do so.
Such groups are larger in scope than the units into which
they are
divided, although they need not have many members in
absolute
terms. They are rarely localized, and their members may be
widely
dispersed. Clans have not been widely reported in Angola.
The only
large ethnic category in which they have been said to
exist is the
Bakongo. Even among the Bakongo, the clans do not seem to
have had
political or economic functions.
More typical of traditional Angolan communities have
been the
kinds of descent groups usually called lineages, in most
cases
matrilineages. Among such descent groups, the common
ancestor is
not so remote, and genealogical links can be traced to
her.
Structurally, lineages of greater depth (for example,
those five to
seven generations in depth from ancestor to most recent
generation)
may be further segmented into shallower lineages (perhaps
three to
four generations in depth), lineages at each level having
different
functions. This structure seems to have been the case
among the
Bakongo. There, the deeper unit controlled the allocation
of land
and performed tasks connected with that crucial function,
whereas
shallower lineages controlled matters such as marriage.
Another important aspect of rural community life was
the role
of traditional leaders. After the outbreak of African
opposition to
colonial rule in the early 1960s, most local leaders were,
if not
loyal to the Portuguese, reluctant to support the
nationalist
movements. The MPLA, in particular, was urban based and
therefore
had little contact with local leaders in rural areas.
Following
independence, however, and most markedly in the 1980s, the
government recognized the necessity of gaining the support
of rural
peasants to counter the spreading influence of UNITA.
Thus, party
officials began appointing local leaders to district or
local
committees, thereby reassigning to them a significant role
in the
local political hierarchy.
Background | | Angola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but fighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS held legislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising to hold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidential poll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
|
Location | | Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
Area(sq km) | | total: 1,246,700 sq km land: 1,246,700 sq km water: 0 sq km
|
Geographic coordinates | | 12 30 S, 18 30 E
|
Land boundaries(km) | | total: 5,198 km border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,511 km (of which 225 km is the boundary of discontiguous Cabinda Province), Republic of the Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zambia 1,110 km
|
Coastline(km) | | 1,600 km
|
Climate | | semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)
|
Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Morro de Moco 2,620 m
|
Natural resources | | petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium
|
Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.65% permanent crops: 0.23% other: 97.12% (2005)
|
Irrigated land(sq km) | | 800 sq km (2003)
|
Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 184 cu km (1987)
|
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 0.35 cu km/yr (23%/17%/60%) per capita: 22 cu m/yr (2000)
|
Natural hazards | | locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau
|
Environment - current issues | | overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
|
Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
|
Geography - note | | the province of Cabinda is an exclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
Population | | 12,799,293 (July 2009 est.)
|
Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 43.5% (male 2,812,359/female 2,759,047) 15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,496,726/female 3,382,440) 65 years and over: 2.7% (male 153,678/female 195,043) (2009 est.)
|
Median age(years) | | total: 18 years male: 18 years female: 18 years (2009 est.)
|
Population growth rate(%) | | 2.095% (2009 est.)
|
Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 43.69 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 24.08 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
|
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | 1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 57% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 4.4% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
|
Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
|
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 180.21 deaths/1,000 live births male: 192.24 deaths/1,000 live births female: 167.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
|
Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 38.2 years male: 37.24 years female: 39.22 years (2009 est.)
|
Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 6.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
|
Nationality | | noun: Angolan(s) adjective: Angolan
|
Ethnic groups(%) | | Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
|
Religions(%) | | indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
|
Languages(%) | | Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
|
Country name | | conventional long form: Republic of Angola conventional short form: Angola local long form: Republica de Angola local short form: Angola former: People's Republic of Angola
|
Government type | | republic; multiparty presidential regime
|
Capital | | name: Luanda geographic coordinates: 8 50 S, 13 14 E time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
|
Administrative divisions | | 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
|
Constitution | | adopted by People's Assembly 25 August 1992
|
Legal system | | based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
|
Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
|
Executive branch | | chief of state: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); Antonio Paulo KASSOMA was named prime minister by MPLA on 26 September 2008 cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections: president elected by universal ballot for a five-year term (eligible for a second consecutive or discontinuous term) under the 1992 constitution; President DOS SANTOS was selected by the party to take over after the death of former President Augustino NETO(1979) under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections 29-30 September 1992 (next were to be held in September 2009 but have been postponed) election results: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS 49.6%, Jonas SAVIMBI 40.1%, making a run-off election necessary; the run-off was never held leaving DOS SANTOS in his current position as the president
|
Legislative branch | | unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 5-6 September 2008 (next to be held in September 2012) election results: percent of vote by party - MPLA 81.6%, UNITA 10.4%, PRS 3.2%, ND 1.2%, FNLA 1.1%, other 2.5%; seats by party - MPLA 191, UNITA 16, PRS 8, FNLA 3, ND 2
|
Judicial branch | | Supreme Court and separate provincial courts (judges are appointed by the president)
|
Political pressure groups and leaders | | Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO, Antonio Bento BEMBE] note: FLEC's small-scale armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province persists despite the signing of a peace accord with the government in August 2006
|
International organization participation | | ACP, AfDB, AU, CPLP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS (observer), OPEC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
|
Flag description | | two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
|
Economy - overview | | Angola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, which has taken advantage of high international oil prices. Oil production and its supporting activities contribute about 85% of GDP. Increased oil production supported growth averaging more than 15% per year from 2004 to 2007. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth in construction and agriculture as well. Much of the country's infrastructure is still damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-long civil war. Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land mines still mar the countryside even though an apparently durable peace was established after the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI in February 2002. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for most of the people, but half of the country's food must still be imported. In 2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit, since increased to $7 billion, from China to rebuild Angola's public infrastructure, and several large-scale projects were completed in 2006. Angola also has large credit lines from Brazil, Portugal, Germany, Spain, and the EU. The central bank in 2003 implemented an exchange rate stabilization program using foreign exchange reserves to buy kwanzas out of circulation. This policy became more sustainable in 2005 because of strong oil export earnings; it has significantly reduced inflation. Although consumer inflation declined from 325% in 2000 to under 13% in 2008, the stabilization policy has put pressure on international net liquidity. Angola became a member of OPEC in late 2006 and in late 2007 was assigned a production quota of 1.9 million barrels a day, somewhat less than the 2-2.5 million bbl Angola's government had wanted. To fully take advantage of its rich national resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement government reforms, increase transparency, and reduce corruption. The government has rejected a formal IMF monitored program, although it continues Article IV consultations and ad hoc cooperation. Corruption, especially in the extractive sectors, and the negative effects of large inflows of foreign exchange, are major challenges facing Angola.
|
GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $112.8 billion (2008 est.) $100.5 billion (2007 est.) $82.94 billion (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
GDP (official exchange rate) | | $84.95 billion (2008 est.)
|
GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 12.3% (2008 est.) 21.1% (2007 est.) 18.6% (2006 est.)
|
GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $9,000 (2008 est.) $8,200 (2007 est.) $6,900 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 9.2% industry: 65.8% services: 24.6% (2008 est.)
|
Labor force | | 7.569 million (2008 est.)
|
Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 85% industry and services: 15% (2003 est.)
|
Unemployment rate(%) | | NA
|
Population below poverty line(%) | | 40.5% (2006 est.)
|
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
|
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 9% of GDP (2008 est.)
|
Budget | | revenues: $28.99 billion expenditures: $21.44 billion (2008 est.)
|
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 12.5% (2008 est.) 12.2% (2007 est.)
|
Stock of money | | $8.446 billion (31 December 2008) $4.153 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Stock of quasi money | | $10.41 billion (31 December 2008) $7.216 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Stock of domestic credit | | $7.893 billion (31 December 2008) $1.166 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Economic aid - recipient | | $441.8 million (2005)
|
Public debt(% of GDP) | | 15.5% of GDP (2008 est.) 12% of GDP (2007 est.)
|
Agriculture - products | | bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish
|
Industries | | petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar; textiles; ship repair
|
Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 14.3% (2008 est.)
|
Current account balance | | $17.11 billion (2008 est.) $9.402 billion (2007 est.)
|
Exports | | $66.3 billion (2008 est.) $44.4 billion (2007 est.)
|
Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, diamonds, refined petroleum products, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
|
Exports - partners(%) | | China 33%, US 28.7%, France 6%, South Africa 4.6%, Canada 4.1% (2008)
|
Imports | | $17.08 billion (2008 est.) $13.66 billion (2007 est.)
|
Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles, military goods
|
Imports - partners(%) | | Portugal 17.6%, China 15.7%, US 11.3%, Brazil 7.6%, South Korea 6.8%, South Africa 4.8% (2008)
|
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $18.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $11.2 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Debt - external | | $14.09 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $8.357 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $16.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $14.51 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $2.477 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
|
Exchange rates | | kwanza (AOA) per US dollar - 75.023 (2008 est.), 76.6 (2007), 80.4 (2006), 88.6 (2005), 83.541 (2004)
|
Currency (code) | | kwanza (AOA)
|
Telephones - main lines in use | | 114,300 (2008)
|
Telephones - mobile cellular | | 6.773 million (2008)
|
Telephone system | | general assessment: system inadequate; fewer than one fixed-line per 100 persons; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density exceeded 50 telephones per 100 persons in 2008 domestic: state-owned telecom had monopoly for fixed-lines until 2005; demand outstripped capacity, prices were high, and services poor; Telecom Namibia, through an Angolan company, became the first private licensed operator in Angola's fixed-line telephone network; Angola Telecom established mobile-cellular service in Luanda in 1993 and the network has been extended to larger towns; a privately-owned, mobile-cellular service provider began operations in 2001 international: country code - 244; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 29 (2008)
|
Internet country code | | .ao
|
Internet users | | 550,000 (2008)
|
Airports | | 192 (2009)
|
Pipelines(km) | | gas 2 km; oil 87 km (2008)
|
Roadways(km) | | total: 51,429 km paved: 5,349 km unpaved: 46,080 km (2001)
|
Ports and terminals | | Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Namibe
|
Military branches | | Angolan Armed Forces (FAA): Army, Navy (Marinha de Guerra Angola, MGA), Angolan National Air Force (Forca Aerea Nacional Angolana, FANA) (2009)
|
Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 22-24 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years; Angolan citizenship required (2009)
|
Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 2,856,492 females age 16-49: 2,755,864 (2008 est.)
|
Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 1,467,833 females age 16-49: 1,411,468 (2009 est.)
|
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 146,738 female: 143,478 (2009 est.)
|
Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.7% of GDP (2006)
|
Disputes - international | | Cabindan separatists continue to return to the Angolan exclave from exile in neighboring states and Europe since the 2006 ceasefire and peace agreement
|
Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 12,615 (Democratic Republic of Congo) IDPs: 61,700 (27-year civil war ending in 2002; 4 million IDPs already have returned) (2007)
|
Electricity - production(kWh) | | 3.722 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 36.4% hydro: 63.6% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
|
Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 3.173 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 2.015 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 64,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 1.407 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 28,090 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 9.04 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
|
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 269.8 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
|
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 2.1% (2007 est.)
|
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 190,000 (2007 est.)
|
HIV/AIDS - deaths | | 11,000 (2007 est.)
|
Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: very high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2009)
|
Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 67.4% male: 82.9% female: 54.2% (2001 est.)
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 2.4% of GDP (2005)
|