In many Third World states, the president was the
paramount
leader, and in this regard Angola was no exception. Its
president,
José Eduardo dos Santos, combined strong party loyalty
with
political pragmatism. This loyalty had political and
personal
bases. Dos Santos owed much of his success to the MPLA,
which he
had joined in 1962 at the age of nineteen. The party
sponsored his
study at Baku University in the Soviet Union from 1963 to
1970. In
1974 MPLA leader Neto appointed dos Santos to the Central
Committee, which elected him to its elite Political
Bureau; this
group elected him to succeed Neto, who died in 1979. Dos
Santos
traveled to the Soviet Union a few weeks later to confirm
his
revolutionary agenda as president.
Dos Santos's loyalty to Marxism-Leninism was founded in
his
student years in the Soviet Union, where he also married a
Soviet
citizen (who later returned to her homeland). There, he
developed
his belief in the vanguard party as the best strategy for
mobilizing Angola's largely rural population. At the same
time,
however, he professed belief in a mixed economy, some
degree of
decentralization, an expanded private sector, and Western
investment. Like many African leaders, he did not equate
political
eclecticism with internal contradiction, nor did he view
Angola's
political posture as an invitation to Soviet domination.
Dos Santos did not embrace Marxism for its utopian
appeal; his
view of Angolan society after the envisioned socialist
transformation did not lack internal conflict. Rather, he
viewed
Marxist-Leninist organizational tenets as the most
practical basis
for mobilizing a society in which the majority lacked
economic and
educational opportunities. A small vanguard leadership,
with proper
motivation and training, could guide the population
through the
early stages of national development, in his view, and
this
approach could improve the lives of more people than
capitalist
investment and profit making by a small minority. During
the 1980s,
because trade with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
failed to
develop and because Western technical expertise appeared
vital to
Angola's development, dos Santos favored improved
political
relations with the West as a step toward peace and greater
prosperity. Although he had scorned his predecessor's
shift in the
same direction in the late 1970s, dos Santos denied that
his move
signaled a weakening commitment to Marxism.
Despite his strong party loyalty, in the late 1980s dos
Santos
was known as a political pragmatist. He sometimes spoke
out against
the MPLA-PT's most extreme ideologues and took steps to
limit their
influence. He openly criticized the results of the
rectification
campaign of the late 1970s, which, in his view, had
removed too
many loyal members from the party's rolls. He also
recognized that
the campaign had alienated much of the nation's peasant
majority,
that they remained indifferent toward party programs in
the late
1980s, and that they had not benefited from many MPLA-PT
policies.
Political pragmatism was not to be confused with a
liberal
style of governing. In response to security crises and
public
criticism, dos Santos ordered arrests, detentions without
trial,
and occasional executions. He concentrated power in his
office and
narrowed his circle of close advisers. He enlarged the
executive
branch of government by appointing new ministers of state
to
coordinate executive branch activity and convinced the
MPLA-PT
Central Committee to entrust him with emergency powers.
Dos Santos
also persuaded party leaders to empower him to appoint
regional
military councils that had sweeping authority over
civilian and
military affairs in unstable regions of the country and
that were
answerable only to the president.
Dos Santos further consolidated his hold on executive
authority
in April 1984 by establishing the Defense and Security
Council
(see Executive Branch
, this ch.). In 1985 he enlarged the party
Central
Committee from sixty to ninety members and alternates,
thus
diluting the strength of its staunch ideological faction.
Undermining potential opponents was not dos Santos's
only
motivation for consolidating power within the executive
branch of
government. He was also impatient with bureaucratic "red
tape,"
even when justified in the name of party discipline.
Accordingly,
the primary qualification for his trusted advisers was a
balance of
competence, efficiency, and loyalty. Rhetorical skills,
which he
generally lacked, were not given particular priority;
ideological
purity was even less important. His advice for economic
recovery
was summed up as "produce, repair, and rehabilitate." The
direct,
relatively nonideological governing style exemplified by
this
approach earned dos Santos substantial respect and a few
strong
critics.
Economic and security crises worsened during the first
nine
years of dos Santos's presidency, draining resources that
might
have been used to improve living standards and education.
The
president rejected advice from party ideologues, whose
primary aim
was to develop a sophisticated Marxist-Leninist party
apparatus.
Rather than emphasize centralized control and party
discipline, dos
Santos embraced a plan to decentralize economic decision
making in
1988. He then appointed Minister of Planning Lopo do
Nascimento to
serve as commissioner of Huíla Province in order to
implement this
plan in a crucial region of the country.
The 1985 Second Party Congress assented to the
president's
growing power by approving several of his choices for top
government office as party officials. Among these was
Roberto de
Almeida, a member of the Defense and Security Council in
his
capacity as the MPLA-PT secretary for ideology,
information, and
culture and one of dos Santos' close advisers. Party
leaders
elected Almeida, a mestiço, to both the MPLA-PT
Central
Committee and the Political Bureau.
Demoted from the top ranks of the party were the
leading
ideologue, Lúcio Lára, and veteran mestiço leaders
Paulo
Jorge and Henrique Carreira (nom de guerre Iko). The split
between
ideologues and political moderates did not render the
party
immobile, in part because of dos Santos's skill at using
Angola's
internal and external threats to unite MPLA-PT factions.
The everpresent UNITA insurgency provided a constant reminder of
the
frailty of the nation's security.
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Background | | Angola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but fighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS held legislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising to hold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidential poll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
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Location | | Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Area(sq km) | | total: 1,246,700 sq km
land: 1,246,700 sq km
water: 0 sq km
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Geographic coordinates | | 12 30 S, 18 30 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 5,198 km
border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,511 km (of which 225 km is the boundary of discontiguous Cabinda Province), Republic of the Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zambia 1,110 km
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Coastline(km) | | 1,600 km
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Climate | | semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Morro de Moco 2,620 m
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Natural resources | | petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium
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Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.65%
permanent crops: 0.23%
other: 97.12% (2005)
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Irrigated land(sq km) | | 800 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 184 cu km (1987)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 0.35 cu km/yr (23%/17%/60%)
per capita: 22 cu m/yr (2000)
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Natural hazards | | locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau
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Environment - current issues | | overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
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Geography - note | | the province of Cabinda is an exclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Population | | 12,799,293 (July 2009 est.)
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 43.5% (male 2,812,359/female 2,759,047)
15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,496,726/female 3,382,440)
65 years and over: 2.7% (male 153,678/female 195,043) (2009 est.)
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Median age(years) | | total: 18 years
male: 18 years
female: 18 years (2009 est.)
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Population growth rate(%) | | 2.095% (2009 est.)
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Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 43.69 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 24.08 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
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Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | 1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 57% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 4.4% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female
total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 180.21 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 192.24 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 167.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 38.2 years
male: 37.24 years
female: 39.22 years (2009 est.)
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Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 6.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Angolan(s)
adjective: Angolan
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
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Religions(%) | | indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
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Languages(%) | | Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
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Country name | | conventional long form: Republic of Angola
conventional short form: Angola
local long form: Republica de Angola
local short form: Angola
former: People's Republic of Angola
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Government type | | republic; multiparty presidential regime
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Capital | | name: Luanda
geographic coordinates: 8 50 S, 13 14 E
time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
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Administrative divisions | | 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
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Constitution | | adopted by People's Assembly 25 August 1992
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Legal system | | based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
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Executive branch | | chief of state: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); Antonio Paulo KASSOMA was named prime minister by MPLA on 26 September 2008
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
elections: president elected by universal ballot for a five-year term (eligible for a second consecutive or discontinuous term) under the 1992 constitution; President DOS SANTOS was selected by the party to take over after the death of former President Augustino NETO(1979) under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections 29-30 September 1992 (next were to be held in September 2009 but have been postponed)
election results: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS 49.6%, Jonas SAVIMBI 40.1%, making a run-off election necessary; the run-off was never held leaving DOS SANTOS in his current position as the president
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Legislative branch | | unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 5-6 September 2008 (next to be held in September 2012)
election results: percent of vote by party - MPLA 81.6%, UNITA 10.4%, PRS 3.2%, ND 1.2%, FNLA 1.1%, other 2.5%; seats by party - MPLA 191, UNITA 16, PRS 8, FNLA 3, ND 2
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Judicial branch | | Supreme Court and separate provincial courts (judges are appointed by the president)
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO, Antonio Bento BEMBE]
note: FLEC's small-scale armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province persists despite the signing of a peace accord with the government in August 2006
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International organization participation | | ACP, AfDB, AU, CPLP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS (observer), OPEC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
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Flag description | | two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
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Economy - overview | | Angola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, which has taken advantage of high international oil prices. Oil production and its supporting activities contribute about 85% of GDP. Increased oil production supported growth averaging more than 15% per year from 2004 to 2007. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth in construction and agriculture as well. Much of the country's infrastructure is still damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-long civil war. Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land mines still mar the countryside even though an apparently durable peace was established after the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI in February 2002. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for most of the people, but half of the country's food must still be imported. In 2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit, since increased to $7 billion, from China to rebuild Angola's public infrastructure, and several large-scale projects were completed in 2006. Angola also has large credit lines from Brazil, Portugal, Germany, Spain, and the EU. The central bank in 2003 implemented an exchange rate stabilization program using foreign exchange reserves to buy kwanzas out of circulation. This policy became more sustainable in 2005 because of strong oil export earnings; it has significantly reduced inflation. Although consumer inflation declined from 325% in 2000 to under 13% in 2008, the stabilization policy has put pressure on international net liquidity. Angola became a member of OPEC in late 2006 and in late 2007 was assigned a production quota of 1.9 million barrels a day, somewhat less than the 2-2.5 million bbl Angola's government had wanted. To fully take advantage of its rich national resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement government reforms, increase transparency, and reduce corruption. The government has rejected a formal IMF monitored program, although it continues Article IV consultations and ad hoc cooperation. Corruption, especially in the extractive sectors, and the negative effects of large inflows of foreign exchange, are major challenges facing Angola.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $112.8 billion (2008 est.)
$100.5 billion (2007 est.)
$82.94 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate) | | $84.95 billion (2008 est.)
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GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 12.3% (2008 est.)
21.1% (2007 est.)
18.6% (2006 est.)
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GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $9,000 (2008 est.)
$8,200 (2007 est.)
$6,900 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 9.2%
industry: 65.8%
services: 24.6% (2008 est.)
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Labor force | | 7.569 million (2008 est.)
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Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 85%
industry and services: 15% (2003 est.)
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Unemployment rate(%) | | NA
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Population below poverty line(%) | | 40.5% (2006 est.)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 9% of GDP (2008 est.)
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Budget | | revenues: $28.99 billion
expenditures: $21.44 billion (2008 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 12.5% (2008 est.)
12.2% (2007 est.)
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Stock of money | | $8.446 billion (31 December 2008)
$4.153 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money | | $10.41 billion (31 December 2008)
$7.216 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of domestic credit | | $7.893 billion (31 December 2008)
$1.166 billion (31 December 2007)
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Economic aid - recipient | | $441.8 million (2005)
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Public debt(% of GDP) | | 15.5% of GDP (2008 est.)
12% of GDP (2007 est.)
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Agriculture - products | | bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish
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Industries | | petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar; textiles; ship repair
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Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 14.3% (2008 est.)
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Current account balance | | $17.11 billion (2008 est.)
$9.402 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports | | $66.3 billion (2008 est.)
$44.4 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, diamonds, refined petroleum products, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
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Exports - partners(%) | | China 33%, US 28.7%, France 6%, South Africa 4.6%, Canada 4.1% (2008)
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Imports | | $17.08 billion (2008 est.)
$13.66 billion (2007 est.)
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Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles, military goods
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Imports - partners(%) | | Portugal 17.6%, China 15.7%, US 11.3%, Brazil 7.6%, South Korea 6.8%, South Africa 4.8% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $18.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$11.2 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Debt - external | | $14.09 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$8.357 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $16.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$14.51 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $2.477 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
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Exchange rates | | kwanza (AOA) per US dollar - 75.023 (2008 est.), 76.6 (2007), 80.4 (2006), 88.6 (2005), 83.541 (2004)
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Currency (code) | | kwanza (AOA)
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 114,300 (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 6.773 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: system inadequate; fewer than one fixed-line per 100 persons; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density exceeded 50 telephones per 100 persons in 2008
domestic: state-owned telecom had monopoly for fixed-lines until 2005; demand outstripped capacity, prices were high, and services poor; Telecom Namibia, through an Angolan company, became the first private licensed operator in Angola's fixed-line telephone network; Angola Telecom established mobile-cellular service in Luanda in 1993 and the network has been extended to larger towns; a privately-owned, mobile-cellular service provider began operations in 2001
international: country code - 244; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 29 (2008)
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Internet country code | | .ao
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Internet users | | 550,000 (2008)
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Airports | | 192 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | gas 2 km; oil 87 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 51,429 km
paved: 5,349 km
unpaved: 46,080 km (2001)
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Ports and terminals | | Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Namibe
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Military branches | | Angolan Armed Forces (FAA): Army, Navy (Marinha de Guerra Angola, MGA), Angolan National Air Force (Forca Aerea Nacional Angolana, FANA) (2009)
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Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 22-24 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years; Angolan citizenship required (2009)
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Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 2,856,492
females age 16-49: 2,755,864 (2008 est.)
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Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 1,467,833
females age 16-49: 1,411,468 (2009 est.)
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Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 146,738
female: 143,478 (2009 est.)
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Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.7% of GDP (2006)
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Disputes - international | | Cabindan separatists continue to return to the Angolan exclave from exile in neighboring states and Europe since the 2006 ceasefire and peace agreement
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Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 12,615 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
IDPs: 61,700 (27-year civil war ending in 2002; 4 million IDPs already have returned) (2007)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 3.722 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 36.4%
hydro: 63.6%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
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Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 3.173 billion kWh (2007 est.)
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Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
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Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
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Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 2.015 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 64,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
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Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 1.407 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 28,090 bbl/day (2007 est.)
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Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 9.04 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
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Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
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Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
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Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 269.8 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 2.1% (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 190,000 (2007 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - deaths | | 11,000 (2007 est.)
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Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: very high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2009)
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 67.4%
male: 82.9%
female: 54.2% (2001 est.)
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Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 2.4% of GDP (2005)
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