Angola was a signatory to several international human
rights
conventions, including the Convention on the Political
Rights of
Women of 1953, the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of
Discrimination against Women, the Geneva Conventions of
1949
Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War and the
Protection of
Civilian Persons in Time of War, and the Convention and
Protocol
Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1967. However, as of
1988
Angola was not a signatory to the Slavery Conventions of
1926 and
1956; the Genocide Convention of 1948; or the
International
Conventions on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic,
Social,
and Cultural Rights of 1966.
Although Angola had acceded to such conventions, and
its
Constitution guarantees most human rights, actual
observance was
subject to severe abridgments, qualifications, and
contrary
practices. A human rights organization, Freedom House,
consistently
gave Angola the lowest ratings on its scale of political
rights and
civil liberties, and The Economist World Human Rights
Guide
assigned Angola an overall rating of "poor." Amnesty
International
and the United States Department of State also issued
reports
highly critical of human rights practices in Angola.
The lack or disregard of international human rights
standards
in Angola was evident in several respects. Arbitrary
arrest and
imprisonment without due process were among the most
common abuses.
Although Angolan law limited the amount of time one could
be
detained without charge, there did not appear to be a
specific
period within which a suspect had to be tried, and as many
as
several hundred political prisoners may have been detained
for
years without trial. The regional military councils had
broad
authority to impose restrictions on the movement of people
and
material, to requisition supplies and labor without
compensation,
and to try crimes against state security. The BPV also had
functions relating to maintenance of public order, the
exercise of
which was not subject to normal judicial safeguards and
due
process.
Constitutional protections of the inviolability of the
home and
privacy of correspondence were routinely ignored by
government
authorities, who made arbitrary home searches, censored
correspondence, and monitored private communications.
Arbitrary
executions of political prisoners, especially those
accused of
supporting UNITA or perpetrating "economic crimes,"
occurred
despite international protests and periodic
reorganizations of the
security services. The government maintained strict
censorship, did
not tolerate criticism or opposition, and denied freedom
of
assembly to any group that was not sanctioned or sponsored
by the
MPLA-PT. UNITA alleged that compulsory military service
was meted
out as punishment by the Ministry of State Security and
the BPV.
Furthermore, the government did not permit the
International
Committee of the Red Cross access to persons arrested for
reasons
related to internal security or military conflict.
Amnesty International also reported numerous instances
of
torture during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Ministry of
State
Security officials were reported to have permitted or
sanctioned
torture of criminals and political prisoners by such
methods as
beating, whipping, and electric shock. Political detainees
arrested
for offenses such as criticizing government policies were
deprived
of food and water for several days and subjected to
frequent and
severe beatings during interrogation and confinement.
Although
allegations of torture and mistreatment remained common in
the mid1980s , such practices did not appear to have been
systematic.
There is voluminous material available on Angola's
military
history and contemporary national security affairs. The
Angolan
independence struggle is thoroughly examined in John A.
Marcum's
two-volume The Angolan Revolution. The civil war of
1975-76
is covered by some of the excellent essays in Southern
Africa
since the Portuguese Coup, edited by John Seiler. The
external
dimension of the civil war is treated in Charles K.
Ebinger's
Foreign Intervention in Civil War, Arthur Jay
Klinghoffer's
The Angolan War, and Ernest Harsch and Tony
Thomas's
Angola: The Hidden History of Washington's War.
The UNITA movement has been extensively studied as
well. One
sympathetic treatment is Fred Bridgland's Jonas
Savimbi. Two
excellent politico-military analyses of the UNITA
insurgency are
Donald J. Alberts's "Armed Struggle in Angola" in
Insurgency in
the Modern World and James W. Martin III's unpublished
doctoral
dissertation, "UNITA Insurgency in Angola."
The human cost of the war--at least in terms of
refugees--is
well covered by the U.S. Committee for Refugees'
Uprooted
Angolans. The devastating economic impact of the
protracted war
is most fully and systematically examined in Tony Hodges's
Angola to the 1990s.
Finally, specialized current news sources and surveys
are
indispensable to research on contemporary national
security
affairs. The most relevant and accessible include the
annual
Africa Contemporary Record and periodicals such as
Africa
Research Bulletin, Africa Confidential,
Africa
Diary, Defense and Foreign Affairs Weekly,
Jane's
Defence Weekly, and International Defense
Review. The
most useful sources are African Defence Journal and
its
sister publication, Afrique Défense. (For further
information and complete citations,
see
Bibliography.)
|
Background | | Angola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but fighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS held legislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising to hold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidential poll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
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Location | | Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo
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|
Area(sq km) | | total: 1,246,700 sq km
land: 1,246,700 sq km
water: 0 sq km
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|
Geographic coordinates | | 12 30 S, 18 30 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 5,198 km
border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,511 km (of which 225 km is the boundary of discontiguous Cabinda Province), Republic of the Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zambia 1,110 km
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Coastline(km) | | 1,600 km
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Climate | | semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Morro de Moco 2,620 m
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Natural resources | | petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium
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|
Land use(%) | | arable land: 2.65%
permanent crops: 0.23%
other: 97.12% (2005)
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Irrigated land(sq km) | | 800 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 184 cu km (1987)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 0.35 cu km/yr (23%/17%/60%)
per capita: 22 cu m/yr (2000)
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Natural hazards | | locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau
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Environment - current issues | | overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
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Geography - note | | the province of Cabinda is an exclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Population | | 12,799,293 (July 2009 est.)
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 43.5% (male 2,812,359/female 2,759,047)
15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,496,726/female 3,382,440)
65 years and over: 2.7% (male 153,678/female 195,043) (2009 est.)
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|
Median age(years) | | total: 18 years
male: 18 years
female: 18 years (2009 est.)
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Population growth rate(%) | | 2.095% (2009 est.)
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Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 43.69 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 24.08 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
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Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | 1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 57% of total population (2008)
rate of urbanization: 4.4% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female
total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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|
Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 180.21 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 192.24 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 167.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 38.2 years
male: 37.24 years
female: 39.22 years (2009 est.)
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Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 6.12 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Angolan(s)
adjective: Angolan
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
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Religions(%) | | indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
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Languages(%) | | Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
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Country name | | conventional long form: Republic of Angola
conventional short form: Angola
local long form: Republica de Angola
local short form: Angola
former: People's Republic of Angola
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Government type | | republic; multiparty presidential regime
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Capital | | name: Luanda
geographic coordinates: 8 50 S, 13 14 E
time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
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Administrative divisions | | 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
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Constitution | | adopted by People's Assembly 25 August 1992
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Legal system | | based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
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Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
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Executive branch | | chief of state: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); Antonio Paulo KASSOMA was named prime minister by MPLA on 26 September 2008
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
elections: president elected by universal ballot for a five-year term (eligible for a second consecutive or discontinuous term) under the 1992 constitution; President DOS SANTOS was selected by the party to take over after the death of former President Augustino NETO(1979) under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections 29-30 September 1992 (next were to be held in September 2009 but have been postponed)
election results: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS 49.6%, Jonas SAVIMBI 40.1%, making a run-off election necessary; the run-off was never held leaving DOS SANTOS in his current position as the president
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Legislative branch | | unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 5-6 September 2008 (next to be held in September 2012)
election results: percent of vote by party - MPLA 81.6%, UNITA 10.4%, PRS 3.2%, ND 1.2%, FNLA 1.1%, other 2.5%; seats by party - MPLA 191, UNITA 16, PRS 8, FNLA 3, ND 2
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Judicial branch | | Supreme Court and separate provincial courts (judges are appointed by the president)
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO, Antonio Bento BEMBE]
note: FLEC's small-scale armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province persists despite the signing of a peace accord with the government in August 2006
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International organization participation | | ACP, AfDB, AU, CPLP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS (observer), OPEC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
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Flag description | | two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
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Economy - overview | | Angola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, which has taken advantage of high international oil prices. Oil production and its supporting activities contribute about 85% of GDP. Increased oil production supported growth averaging more than 15% per year from 2004 to 2007. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth in construction and agriculture as well. Much of the country's infrastructure is still damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-long civil war. Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land mines still mar the countryside even though an apparently durable peace was established after the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI in February 2002. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for most of the people, but half of the country's food must still be imported. In 2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit, since increased to $7 billion, from China to rebuild Angola's public infrastructure, and several large-scale projects were completed in 2006. Angola also has large credit lines from Brazil, Portugal, Germany, Spain, and the EU. The central bank in 2003 implemented an exchange rate stabilization program using foreign exchange reserves to buy kwanzas out of circulation. This policy became more sustainable in 2005 because of strong oil export earnings; it has significantly reduced inflation. Although consumer inflation declined from 325% in 2000 to under 13% in 2008, the stabilization policy has put pressure on international net liquidity. Angola became a member of OPEC in late 2006 and in late 2007 was assigned a production quota of 1.9 million barrels a day, somewhat less than the 2-2.5 million bbl Angola's government had wanted. To fully take advantage of its rich national resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement government reforms, increase transparency, and reduce corruption. The government has rejected a formal IMF monitored program, although it continues Article IV consultations and ad hoc cooperation. Corruption, especially in the extractive sectors, and the negative effects of large inflows of foreign exchange, are major challenges facing Angola.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $112.8 billion (2008 est.)
$100.5 billion (2007 est.)
$82.94 billion (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP (official exchange rate) | | $84.95 billion (2008 est.)
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GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 12.3% (2008 est.)
21.1% (2007 est.)
18.6% (2006 est.)
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GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $9,000 (2008 est.)
$8,200 (2007 est.)
$6,900 (2006 est.)
note: data are in 2008 US dollars
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GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 9.2%
industry: 65.8%
services: 24.6% (2008 est.)
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Labor force | | 7.569 million (2008 est.)
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Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 85%
industry and services: 15% (2003 est.)
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Unemployment rate(%) | | NA
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Population below poverty line(%) | | 40.5% (2006 est.)
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Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
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Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 9% of GDP (2008 est.)
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Budget | | revenues: $28.99 billion
expenditures: $21.44 billion (2008 est.)
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Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 12.5% (2008 est.)
12.2% (2007 est.)
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Stock of money | | $8.446 billion (31 December 2008)
$4.153 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of quasi money | | $10.41 billion (31 December 2008)
$7.216 billion (31 December 2007)
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Stock of domestic credit | | $7.893 billion (31 December 2008)
$1.166 billion (31 December 2007)
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Economic aid - recipient | | $441.8 million (2005)
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Public debt(% of GDP) | | 15.5% of GDP (2008 est.)
12% of GDP (2007 est.)
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Agriculture - products | | bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish
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Industries | | petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar; textiles; ship repair
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Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 14.3% (2008 est.)
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Current account balance | | $17.11 billion (2008 est.)
$9.402 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports | | $66.3 billion (2008 est.)
$44.4 billion (2007 est.)
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Exports - commodities(%) | | crude oil, diamonds, refined petroleum products, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
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Exports - partners(%) | | China 33%, US 28.7%, France 6%, South Africa 4.6%, Canada 4.1% (2008)
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Imports | | $17.08 billion (2008 est.)
$13.66 billion (2007 est.)
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Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles, military goods
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Imports - partners(%) | | Portugal 17.6%, China 15.7%, US 11.3%, Brazil 7.6%, South Korea 6.8%, South Africa 4.8% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $18.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$11.2 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Debt - external | | $14.09 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$8.357 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - at home | | $16.36 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
$14.51 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
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Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad | | $2.477 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
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Exchange rates | | kwanza (AOA) per US dollar - 75.023 (2008 est.), 76.6 (2007), 80.4 (2006), 88.6 (2005), 83.541 (2004)
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Currency (code) | | kwanza (AOA)
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 114,300 (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 6.773 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: system inadequate; fewer than one fixed-line per 100 persons; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density exceeded 50 telephones per 100 persons in 2008
domestic: state-owned telecom had monopoly for fixed-lines until 2005; demand outstripped capacity, prices were high, and services poor; Telecom Namibia, through an Angolan company, became the first private licensed operator in Angola's fixed-line telephone network; Angola Telecom established mobile-cellular service in Luanda in 1993 and the network has been extended to larger towns; a privately-owned, mobile-cellular service provider began operations in 2001
international: country code - 244; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; satellite earth stations - 29 (2008)
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Internet country code | | .ao
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Internet users | | 550,000 (2008)
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Airports | | 192 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | gas 2 km; oil 87 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 51,429 km
paved: 5,349 km
unpaved: 46,080 km (2001)
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Ports and terminals | | Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Namibe
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Military branches | | Angolan Armed Forces (FAA): Army, Navy (Marinha de Guerra Angola, MGA), Angolan National Air Force (Forca Aerea Nacional Angolana, FANA) (2009)
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Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 22-24 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years; Angolan citizenship required (2009)
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Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 2,856,492
females age 16-49: 2,755,864 (2008 est.)
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Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 1,467,833
females age 16-49: 1,411,468 (2009 est.)
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Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 146,738
female: 143,478 (2009 est.)
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Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 5.7% of GDP (2006)
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Disputes - international | | Cabindan separatists continue to return to the Angolan exclave from exile in neighboring states and Europe since the 2006 ceasefire and peace agreement
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Refugees and internally displaced persons | | refugees (country of origin): 12,615 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
IDPs: 61,700 (27-year civil war ending in 2002; 4 million IDPs already have returned) (2007)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 3.722 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
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Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 36.4%
hydro: 63.6%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
|
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Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 3.173 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
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Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
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Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
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Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 2.015 million bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
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Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 64,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
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Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 1.407 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
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Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 28,090 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
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Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 9.04 billion bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
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Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
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Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 680 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
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Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
|
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Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 269.8 billion cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
|
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | 2.1% (2007 est.)
|
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HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | 190,000 (2007 est.)
|
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HIV/AIDS - deaths | | 11,000 (2007 est.)
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Major infectious diseases | | degree of risk: very high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2009)
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 67.4%
male: 82.9%
female: 54.2% (2001 est.)
|
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 2.4% of GDP (2005)
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