Enver Hoxha was one of the last Stalinist leaders in
Eastern
Europe and continued to employ Stalinist techniques for
controlling the population long after most other East
European
countries had shifted from outright terror and repression
to more
subtle bureaucratic-authoritarian methods. Western
observers
believed that no other communist country had as extensive
a
police and security organization relative to its size as
the one
that operated in Albania.
Hoxha regarded the security police as an elite group,
and it
underpinned the power of the ACP and then the APL during
the
period they dominated Albania's one-party political
system. The
secret police was instrumental in enabling Hoxha and the
communist party to consolidate power after 1944 by
conducting a
campaign of intimidation and terror against prewar
politicians
and rival groups. Persecution of these opponents in show
trials
on charges of treason, conspiracy, subversion, espionage,
or
anti-Albanian agitation and propaganda became common. From
1948
until the early 1960s, the Ministry of Internal Affairs
was
involved in the search for real or alleged Yugoslav agents
or
Titoists in Albania, and the ministry itself was an
initial
battleground in the purge of Yugoslav influence. Yugoslav
control
of the Ministry of Internal Affairs ran deep in the years
immediately following World War II. Its chief, Koci Xoxe,
was
part of the pro-Yugoslav faction of the party and a rival
to
Hoxha. In 1949, however, he was arrested, convicted in a
secret
trial, and executed.
Hoxha maintained a Stalinist political system even
after the
communist regimes in the Soviet Union and China had long
since
moderated their totalitarian or radical excesses. In the
last
years of Hoxha's life, the Directorate of State Security
(Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit--Sigurimi), increased
its
political power, perhaps to the extent of supplanting
party
control. After Hoxha's death, the security forces viewed
his
successor, Ramiz Alia, and his modest reforms with
suspicion. In
the late 1980s, they reportedly supported a group of
conservatives centered around Hoxha's widow, in opposition
to
Alia.
Under Hoxha the communist regime essentially ignored
internationally recognized standards of human rights.
According
to a landmark Amnesty International report published in
1984,
Albania's human rights record was dismal under Hoxha. The
regime
denied its citizens freedom of expression, religion,
movement,
and association although the constitution of 1976
ostensibly
guaranteed each of these rights. In fact, the constitution
effectively circumscribed the exercise of political
liberties
that the regime interpreted as contrary to the established
socialist order. In addition, the regime tried to deny the
population access to information other than that
disseminated by
the government-controlled media. The secret police
routinely
violated the privacy of persons, homes, and communications
and
made arbitrary arrests. The courts ensured that verdicts
were
rendered from the party's political perspective rather
than
affording due process to the accused, who were
occasionally
sentenced without even the formality of a trial.
After Hoxha's death, Alia was apparently unable or
unwilling
to maintain the totalitarian system of terror, coercion,
and
repression that Hoxha had employed to maintain his grip on
the
party and the country. Alia relaxed the most overt
Stalinist
controls over the population and instructed the internal
security
structure to use more subtle, bureaucratic-authoritarian
mechanisms characteristic of the post-Stalin Soviet Union
and
East European regimes. He allowed greater contact with the
outside world, including eased travel restrictions for
Albanians,
although the Sigurimi demanded bribes equivalent to six
months'
salary for the average Albanian to obtain the documents
needed
for a passport. More foreigners were allowed to visit
Albania,
and they reported a generally more relaxed atmosphere
among the
population as well as a less repressive political and
antireligious climate. Official sources admitted that
social
discipline, especially among young Albanians, was breaking
down
in the late 1980s. The country's youth increasingly
refused to
accept and even openly rejected the values advanced under
the
official communist ideology. Moreover, small-scale
rebellions
were reported more frequently after Hoxha's death. Yet
these
developments did not alter the regime's exclusive hold on
political power after the 1980s.
The dramatic collapse of communist rule in Eastern
Europe in
1989 apparently had a devastating effect on the internal
social
and political situation in Albania despite Alia's efforts
to
contain it. Massive demonstrations against communist rule
followed by liberalization and democratization in Eastern
Europe
began to affect Albania in 1990. The power of the security
police
was successfully challenged by massive numbers of largely
unorganized demonstrators demanding reforms and democratic
elections. Unrest began with demonstrations in Shkodër in
January
1990 that forced authorities to declare a state of
emergency to
quell the protests. Berat workers staged strikes
protesting low
wages in May. During July 1990, approximately 5,000
Albanians
sought refuge on the grounds of foreign embassies in an
effort to
flee Albania. The security forces reportedly killed
hundreds of
asylum seekers either in the streets outside foreign
compounds or
after they were detained, but even such extreme measures
did not
staunch the unrest.
In September 1990, Alia acceded to the requirements of
the
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe,
committing
Albania to respect the human rights and political freedoms
embodied in the 1975 Helsinki Accords. When students
organized
demonstrations in December 1990, their demands for
political
pluralism received widespread support
(see ch. 4,
Further Moves Toward Democracy). Attempts by riot police to
break up the
demonstrations failed, and the party's Central Committee,
in an
extraordinary meeting called by Alia to discuss the
growing
unrest, decided not to use further force. The following
year, the
security forces were not in evidence at large political
demonstrations and were unable to stop thousands of
refugees from
boarding ships bound for Italy or from crossing the border
into
Greece. However, the security forces attempted to maintain
control by forcing the authorities to give the People's
Army
control over the ports of Vlorë, Durrës, Shengjin, and
Sarandë.
The army was ordered to clear the ports of potential
refugees and
to establish a blockade around them.
Background | | Albania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, but was conquered by Italy in 1939. Communist partisans took over the country in 1944. Albania allied itself first with the USSR (until 1960), and then with China (to 1978). In the early 1990s, Albania ended 46 years of xenophobic Communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition has proven challenging as successive governments have tried to deal with high unemployment, widespread corruption, a dilapidated physical infrastructure, powerful organized crime networks, and combative political opponents. Albania has made progress in its democratic development since first holding multiparty elections in 1991, but deficiencies remain. International observers judged elections to be largely free and fair since the restoration of political stability following the collapse of pyramid schemes in 1997; however, there have been claims of electoral fraud in every one of Albania's post-communist elections. In the 2005 general elections, the Democratic Party and its allies won a decisive victory on pledges to reduce crime and corruption, promote economic growth, and decrease the size of government. The election, and particularly the orderly transition of power, was considered an important step forward. Albania joined NATO in April 2009 and is a potential candidate for EU accession. Although Albania's economy continues to grow, the country is still one of the poorest in Europe, hampered by a large informal economy and an inadequate energy and transportation infrastructure.
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Location | | Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece in the south and Montenegro and Kosovo to the north
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Area(sq km) | | total: 28,748 sq km land: 27,398 sq km water: 1,350 sq km
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Geographic coordinates | | 41 00 N, 20 00 E
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Land boundaries(km) | | total: 717 km border countries: Greece 282 km, Macedonia 151 km, Montenegro 172 km, Kosovo 112 km
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Coastline(km) | | 362 km
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Climate | | mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter
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Elevation extremes(m) | | lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,764 m
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Natural resources | | petroleum, natural gas, coal, bauxite, chromite, copper, iron ore, nickel, salt, timber, hydropower
|
Land use(%) | | arable land: 20.1% permanent crops: 4.21% other: 75.69% (2005)
|
Irrigated land(sq km) | | 3,530 sq km (2003)
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Total renewable water resources(cu km) | | 41.7 cu km (2001)
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Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) | | total: 1.71 cu km/yr (27%/11%/62%) per capita: 546 cu m/yr (2000)
|
Natural hazards | | destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast; floods; drought
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Environment - current issues | | deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents
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Environment - international agreements | | party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
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Geography - note | | strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea)
|
Population | | 3,639,453 (July 2009 est.)
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Age structure(%) | | 0-14 years: 23.1% (male 440,528/female 400,816) 15-64 years: 67.1% (male 1,251,001/female 1,190,841) 65 years and over: 9.8% (male 165,557/female 190,710) (2009 est.)
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Median age(years) | | total: 29.9 years male: 29.3 years female: 30.6 years (2009 est.)
|
Population growth rate(%) | | 0.546% (2009 est.)
|
Birth rate(births/1,000 population) | | 15.29 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
|
Death rate(deaths/1,000 population) | | 5.55 deaths/1,000 population (July 2009 est.)
|
Net migration rate(migrant(s)/1,000 population) | | -4.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
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Urbanization(%) | | urban population: 47% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 1.9% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
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Sex ratio(male(s)/female) | | at birth: 1.1 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.87 male(s)/female total population: 1.04 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
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Infant mortality rate(deaths/1,000 live births) | | total: 18.62 deaths/1,000 live births male: 19.05 deaths/1,000 live births female: 18.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
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Life expectancy at birth(years) | | total population: 77.96 years male: 75.28 years female: 80.89 years (2009 est.)
|
Total fertility rate(children born/woman) | | 2.01 children born/woman (2009 est.)
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Nationality | | noun: Albanian(s) adjective: Albanian
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Ethnic groups(%) | | Albanian 95%, Greek 3%, other 2% (Vlach, Roma (Gypsy), Serb, Macedonian, Bulgarian) (1989 est.) note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization)
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Religions(%) | | Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% note: percentages are estimates; there are no available current statistics on religious affiliation; all mosques and churches were closed in 1967 and religious observances prohibited; in November 1990, Albania began allowing private religious practice
|
Languages(%) | | Albanian (official - derived from Tosk dialect), Greek, Vlach, Romani, Slavic dialects
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Country name | | conventional long form: Republic of Albania conventional short form: Albania local long form: Republika e Shqiperise local short form: Shqiperia former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania
|
Government type | | emerging democracy
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Capital | | name: Tirana (Tirane) geographic coordinates: 41 19 N, 19 49 E time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October
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Administrative divisions | | 12 counties (qarqe, singular - qark); Berat, Diber, Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Korce, Kukes, Lezhe, Shkoder, Tirane, Vlore
|
Constitution | | approved by parliament on 21 October 1998; adopted by popular referendum on 22 November 1998; promulgated 28 November 1998
|
Legal system | | has a civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; has accepted jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court for its citizens
|
Suffrage | | 18 years of age; universal
|
Executive branch | | chief of state: President of the Republic Bamir TOPI (since 24 July 2007) head of government: Prime Minister Sali BERISHA (since 10 September 2005) cabinet: Council of Ministers proposed by the prime minister, nominated by the president, and approved by parliament elections: president elected by the Assembly for a five-year term (eligible for a second term); four election rounds held between 8 and 20 July 2007 (next election to be held in 2012); prime minister appointed by the president election results: Bamir TOPI elected president; Assembly vote, fourth round (three-fifths majority (84 votes) required): Bamir TOPI 85 votes, Neritan CEKA 5 votes
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Legislative branch | | unicameral Assembly or Kuvendi (140 seats; 100 members elected by direct popular vote and 40 by proportional vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 28 June 2009 (next to be held in 2013) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PD 68, PS 64, LSI 4, other 4 note: Parliament in November 2008 approved an electoral reform package that transformed the electoral system from a majority system to a regional proportional system; the code also established an electoral threshold limiting smaller party representation
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Judicial branch | | Constitutional Court, Supreme Court (chairman is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term) and multiple appeals and district courts
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Political pressure groups and leaders | | Citizens Advocacy Office [Kreshnik SPAHIU]; Confederation of Trade Unions of Albania or KSSH [Kastriot MUCO]; Front for Albanian National Unification or FBKSH [Gafur ADILI]; Mjaft Movement; Omonia [Jani JANI]; Union of Independent Trade Unions of Albania or BSPSH [Gezim KALAJA]
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International organization participation | | BSEC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINURCAT, NATO, OIC, OIF, OPCW, OSCE, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
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Flag description | | red with a black two-headed eagle in the center; the design is claimed to be that of 15th-century hero George Castriota SKANDERBERG, who led a successful uprising against the Turks that resulted in a short-lived independence for some Albanian regions (1443-1478)
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Economy - overview | | Lagging behind its Balkan neighbors, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more modern open-market economy. Macroeconomic growth has averaged around 5% over the last five years and inflation is low and stable. The government has taken measures to curb violent crime, and recently adopted a fiscal reform package aimed at reducing the large gray economy and attracting foreign investment. The economy is bolstered by annual remittances from abroad representing about 15% of GDP, mostly from Albanians residing in Greece and Italy; this helps offset the towering trade deficit. The agricultural sector, which accounts for over half of employment but only about one-fifth of GDP, is limited primarily to small family operations and subsistence farming because of lack of modern equipment, unclear property rights, and the prevalence of small, inefficient plots of land. Energy shortages because of a reliance on hydropower, and antiquated and inadequate infrastructure contribute to Albania's poor business environment and lack of success in attracting new foreign investment. The completion of a new thermal power plant near Vlore has helped diversify generation capacity, and plans to upgrade transmission lines between Albania and Montenegro and Kosovo would help relieve the energy shortages. Also, with help from EU funds, the government is taking steps to improve the poor national road and rail network, a long-standing barrier to sustained economic growth.
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GDP (purchasing power parity) | | $21.86 billion (2008 est.) $20.61 billion (2007 est.) $19.44 billion (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars Albania has an informal, and unreported, sector that may be as large as 50% of official GDP
|
GDP (official exchange rate) | | $12.96 billion (2008 est.)
|
GDP - real growth rate(%) | | 6.1% (2008 est.) 6% (2007 est.) 5.5% (2006 est.)
|
GDP - per capita (PPP) | | $6,000 (2008 est.) $5,700 (2007 est.) $5,400 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
|
GDP - composition by sector(%) | | agriculture: 20.5% industry: 19.8% services: 59.7% (2008 est.)
|
Labor force | | 1.103 million (not including 352,000 emigrant workers) (2007 est.)
|
Labor force - by occupation(%) | | agriculture: 58% industry: 15% services: 27% (September 2006 est.)
|
Unemployment rate(%) | | 12.5% (2008 est.) 13.2% (2007 est.) note: these are official rates, but actual rates may exceed 30% due to preponderance of near-subsistence farming
|
Population below poverty line(%) | | 25% (2004 est.)
|
Household income or consumption by percentage share(%) | | lowest 10%: 3.2% highest 10%: 25.9% (2005)
|
Distribution of family income - Gini index | | 26.7 (2005)
|
Investment (gross fixed)(% of GDP) | | 23.1% of GDP (2008 est.)
|
Budget | | revenues: $3.458 billion expenditures: $4.175 billion (2008 est.)
|
Inflation rate (consumer prices)(%) | | 3.4% (2008 est.) 2.9% (2007 est.)
|
Stock of money | | $3.028 billion (31 December 2008) $2.707 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Stock of quasi money | | $6.251 billion (31 December 2008) $6.433 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Stock of domestic credit | | $8.176 billion (31 December 2008) $7.247 billion (31 December 2007)
|
Market value of publicly traded shares | | $NA
|
Economic aid - recipient | | ODA: $318.7 million note: top donors were Italy, EU, Germany (2005 est.)
|
Public debt(% of GDP) | | 51.9% of GDP (2008 est.) 51.4% of GDP (2007 est.)
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Agriculture - products | | wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products
|
Industries | | food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower
|
Industrial production growth rate(%) | | 3% (2008 est.)
|
Current account balance | | -$1.906 billion (2008 est.) -$1.202 billion (2007 est.)
|
Exports | | $1.345 billion (2008 est.) $1.076 billion (2007 est.)
|
Exports - commodities(%) | | textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco
|
Exports - partners(%) | | Italy 55.9%, Greece 11.6%, China 7.2% (2008)
|
Imports | | $4.898 billion (2008 est.) $3.999 billion (2007 est.)
|
Imports - commodities(%) | | machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals
|
Imports - partners(%) | | Italy 32.2%, Greece 13.1%, Turkey 7.2%, Germany 6.6%, China 4.5%, Russia 4.4% (2008)
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Reserves of foreign exchange and gold | | $2.364 billion (31 December 2008 est.) $2.162 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
|
Debt - external | | $1.55 billion (2004)
|
Exchange rates | | leke (ALL) per US dollar - 79.546 (2008 est.), 92.668 (2007), 98.384 (2006), 102.649 (2005), 102.78 (2004)
|
Currency (code) | | lek (ALL) note: the plural of lek is leke
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Telephones - main lines in use | | 316,400 (2008)
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Telephones - mobile cellular | | 3.141 million (2008)
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Telephone system | | general assessment: despite new investment in fixed lines, the density of main lines remains low with roughly 10 lines per 100 people; cellular telephone use is widespread and generally effective; combined fixed line and mobile telephone density is approaching 100 telephones per 100 persons domestic: offsetting the shortage of fixed line capacity, mobile phone service has been available since 1996; by 2003, two companies were providing mobile services at a greater density than some of Albania's neighbors; Internet broadband services initiated in 2005; Internet cafes are popular in Tirana and have started to spread outside the capital international: country code - 355; submarine cable provides connectivity to Italy, Croatia, and Greece; the Trans-Balkan Line, a combination submarine cable and land fiber-optic system, provides additional connectivity to Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Turkey; international traffic carried by fiber-optic cable and, when necessary, by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece (2008)
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Internet country code | | .al
|
Internet users | | 471,000 (2008)
|
Airports | | 5 (2009)
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Pipelines(km) | | gas 339 km; oil 207 km (2008)
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Roadways(km) | | total: 18,000 km paved: 7,020 km unpaved: 10,980 km (2002)
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Ports and terminals | | Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore
|
Military branches | | Joint Force Command (includes Land, Naval, and Aviation Brigade Commands), Joint Support Command (includes Logistic Command), Training and Doctrine Command (2009)
|
Military service age and obligation(years of age) | | 19 years of age (2004)
|
Manpower available for military service | | males age 16-49: 944,592 females age 16-49: 908,527 (2008 est.)
|
Manpower fit for military service | | males age 16-49: 800,665 females age 16-49: 768,536 (2009 est.)
|
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually | | male: 34,778 female: 31,673 (2009 est.)
|
Military expenditures(% of GDP) | | 1.49% of GDP (2005 est.)
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Disputes - international | | the Albanian Government calls for the protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians in neighboring countries, and the peaceful resolution of interethnic disputes; some ethnic Albanian groups in neighboring countries advocate for a "greater Albania," but the idea has little appeal among Albanian nationals; the mass emigration of unemployed Albanians remains a problem for developed countries, chiefly Greece and Italy
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Trafficking in persons | | current situation: Albania is a source country for women and girls trafficked for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor; it is no longer considered a major country of transit; Albanian victims are trafficked to Greece, Italy, Macedonia, and Kosovo, with many trafficked onward to Western European countries; children were also trafficked to Greece for begging and other forms of child labor; approximately half of all Albanian trafficking victims are under age 18; internal sex trafficking of women and children is on the rise tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - Albania is on the Tier 2 Watch List for its failure to provide evidence of increasing efforts to combat trafficking in persons in 2007, particularly in the area of victim protection; the government did not appropriately identify trafficking victims during 2007, and has not demonstrated that it is vigorously investigating or prosecuting complicit officials (2008)
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Electricity - production(kWh) | | 2.888 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
Electricity - production by source(%) | | fossil fuel: 2.9% hydro: 97.1% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
|
Electricity - consumption(kWh) | | 3.603 billion kWh (2007 est.)
|
Electricity - exports(kWh) | | 0 kWh (2008 est.)
|
Electricity - imports(kWh) | | 2.475 billion kWh (2008 est.)
|
Oil - production(bbl/day) | | 5,985 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
Oil - consumption(bbl/day) | | 34,000 bbl/day (2008 est.)
|
Oil - exports(bbl/day) | | 748.9 bbl/day (2005 est.)
|
Oil - imports(bbl/day) | | 24,080 bbl/day (2007 est.)
|
Oil - proved reserves(bbl) | | 199.1 million bbl (1 January 2009 est.)
|
Natural gas - production(cu m) | | 30 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
Natural gas - consumption(cu m) | | 30 million cu m (2008 est.)
|
Natural gas - exports(cu m) | | 0 cu m (2008)
|
Natural gas - proved reserves(cu m) | | 849.5 million cu m (1 January 2009 est.)
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HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate(%) | | NA
|
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS | | NA
|
HIV/AIDS - deaths | | NA
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Literacy(%) | | definition: age 9 and over can read and write total population: 98.7% male: 99.2% female: 98.3% (2001 census)
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School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)(years) | | total: 11 years male: 11 years female: 11 years (2004)
|
Education expenditures(% of GDP) | | 2.9% of GDP (2002)
|